The Kingdom of Saloum (Serer: Saluum or Saalum) was a Sererkingdom in present-day Senegal and parts of Gambia. The precolonial capital was the city of Kahone. Its history, geography and culture was intricately linked with the sister state, the Kingdom of Sine, and it was common to refer to them as the Sine-Saloum or the Serer Kingdoms.
Serer oral traditions recount that the area was named Saluum/Saloum by the Maad SaloumMbegane Ndour in the later part of the 15th century (c. 1494).[1] The most common explanation of the name is that it was named after Saalum Suwareh, the marabout of Mbegan Ndour. Alternatively, the name 'Saluum' could mean 'land of the Luum', an important family in the region.[2]
Portuguese explorers in the 15th century referred to Saloum as the kingdom of Borçalo, a corruption of the Wolof 'Bor-ba-Saloum' for "King of Saloum" (Maad Saloum).[3]
History
Carte des peuplades du Sénégal de l'abbé Boilat (1853): an ethnic map of Senegal at the time of French colonialism. The pre-colonial states of Baol, Sine and Saloum are arrayed along the southwest coast, with the inland areas marked "Peuple Sérère".
Saloum and the surrounding region is known for its many ancient burial mounds or "tumuli" containing the graves of kings and others. The kingdom also has numerous mysterious stone circles whose function and history are still debated by scholars, most of which pre-date the formation of the kingdom.[4] The first inhabitants of the region, according to oral tradition, were a Mande people who immigrated from the Wagadu Empire to flee a drought, likely towards the end of the first millennium CE.[5] The Serer came to Saloum starting in the 11th century, fleeing forced conversion to Islam and the growing centralization of power in Takrur and later the Jolof Empire in the Senegal river valley, and became the dominant ethnic group in the core of the future Saloum.[6]
Before Mbegan Ndour, Saloum existed in some form (as attested in European written sources), but it is unclear what form it took.[7] The area was composed a series of chiefdoms and independent villages, many of which led by Serer Lamanes and/or part of the Jolof Empire's sphere of influence.[8][9] The core of what would become the Kingdom of Saloum was a Lamanic state called Mbey, with the capital at Njop.[10][1][11]
Founding
Apartment of the Maad Saloum (king of Saloum) in 1821.
In the late 15th century, Ali Elibana, a Toucouleurmarabout, established himself at Njop and took control of the surrounding salt-producing region, Mbey, mostly populated by the Serer.[7][12] This was a period of profound destabilization and succession disputes in the Jolof Empire, which had extended its hegemony south to the Gambia river under Biram Njeme Eler (c.1465–c.1481). While the southern and eastern parts of the region that became Saloum were under the influence of Jolof, Saloum the kingdom was never a part of the empire.[9]
Mbegane Ndour, whose paternal roots were in the region, came to Mbey from Sine likely with the intention of carving out a kingdom for himself.[13] Around the turn of the 16th century, he launched a religious conflict against the Muslim Elibana, strenghthened by the purchase of horses and guns from European merchants on the coast. In the legend, after proving unable to overcome him on the battlefield, Ndour transformed into a snake and hid outside Elibana's mosque; when the marabout emerged from his prayers, the snake bit him, and he died. He then fought and defeated Diattara Tambedou, who was either Elibana's successor or a former ally of Ndour's. Tambedou, a Muslim Soninke, was likely a salt merchant. Control over this vital resource underpinned the conflict as much or more than religious differences.[14][15]
Ndour renamed Njop Kahone, meaning 'this is the one' in Serer, and made it the capital of a kingdom modeled on his homeland, Sine.[16][17][18] He built up his power by allying with the various smaller powers of the region, including Serer Lamanes, Soninke or Toucouleur marabouts, and local village chiefs, but he only directly controlled Mbey.[19] At some point, he may have served as regent to the underage Maad a Sinig (King of the Kingdom of Sine).[13]
Height
After Mbegane Ndour's death he was succeeded by Giran O Ngap, a Guelwar, but his reign was consumed by civil conflict first with local marabouts and finally with Ndour's nephew Latmenge Dielene, who poisoned him and took power. Rather than relying on a balance of alliances like his uncle had done, Latmenge Dielene built a military powerful state with clearly defined provinces run by families loyal to the Maad Saloum. He fought numerous wars to build up the power of the ruling aristocracy and impose central power and tribute on previously independent villages or statelets, including the kingdom of Niumi.[20]
By 1566, the process of unification and centralization was completed under Maad Saloum Lat Ciloor Bajaan, who extended Saloum's power to the north bank of the Gambia and made the Kingdom of Niani pay tribute.[21]Twodistricts of The Gambia retain the name Saloum today. A major part of this expansion process was the welcoming of immigrant families fleeing conflict elsewhere in the region, granting them fiefs either to extend control over uninhabited areas or ensure the loyalty of conquered regions. At its height, four major trading ports on the Gambia river fell within Saloum's zone of influence: Barra in Niumi, Iambor in Badibu, Kaur in Saloum itself, and Cassan in Niani.[22]
The most important offices of the state were monopolized by members of the Guelwar clan. But the multiplication of titles and the importance of trade on the Gambia gradually undermined central control.[23]
Clashes with Colonialism and Islam
As one of the wealthiest and most stable states in the region, the Maad Saloum was able to play France and England off of each other for centuries to ensure the best terms of trade. In 1785 Saalum Sandene signed a trade treaty with the French, but the upheavals of the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Era ensured continued English dominance of the important Saloum-Saloum market. The end of the Atlantic slave trade saw the kingdom's foreign trade limited mostly to foodstuffs, which further increased the power of landowners relative to the monarchy, and pushed the ceddo warrior class to increasingly prey on their subjects.[24]
In 1857 the French trading post at Albreda on the Gambia was given to the English in exchange for Portendick, and Saloum was left unable to balance the two colonial powers against each other. Two years later, Governor Louis Faidherbe led an expedition up the Saloum river and imposed a new treaty on the Maad Saloum.[25]
In 1861, Maba Diakhou Bâ, a Muslim cleric, took control of Badibbu, also known as Rip, on Saloum's southern edge. Shortly afterwards, Sambou Oumanneh Touray, Maba disciple defeated and killed the Fara Sabakh and Fara Sandial, joined the two countries together (hence: Sabakh-Sandial) and ruled it.[1]:18[26] Maba soon controlled most of Saloum and part of Niumi.[27] His forces clashed with the French and, despite a defeat, continued to attract new recruits, with the army numbering up to 11,000 fighting men. In 1864 the French recognized him as Almamy of Baddibu and Saloum, but his growing power threatened to unify Senegambia against them.[28] An alarmed French governor Émile Pinet-Laprade marched on Saloum at the head of 1,600 regulars, 2,000 cavalry, and 4,000 volunteers and footsoldiers. At the Battle of Pathé Badiane outside of Nioro, however, the marabout forces led by Lat Dior drove the French back towards Kaolack.[29]
As well as forcibly converting traditional states and their populations to Islam, Maba Diakhou Bâ sought to abolish the traditional caste system of the Serer states.[28] In 1867, he invaded the Kingdom of Sine, but was defeated and killed at the Battle of Fandane-Thiouthioune.[29]
After Maba's defeat, Saloum was incorporated into the colony of Senegal. The kings continued to hold their court in Kahone, but the city was eclipsed commercially by neighboring Kaolack. However, like the Kingdom of Sine, the royal dynasty survived up to 1969, when the last king of Saloum, Fode N'Gouye Joof died. After their deaths, both were incorporated into newly independent Senegal.[citation needed]
Restoration of the Monarchy
In 2017, the Serer of Saloum decided to reinstate their monarchy, and Thierno Coumba Daga Ndao was selected from the Guelowar matrilineage to succeed the throne. After a contentious election, he was crowned King on 21 May 2017 at Kahone.[30] He is the current King of Saloum as of 2024, and the maternal uncle of the current King of Sine, Niokhobaye Fatou Diène Diouf,[31] from the Royal House of Semou Njekeh Joof.
People and Society
The core of the Kingdom of Saloum is populated mostly by the Serer, but gradually the Wolof immigrants have settled in along with the Fulas, Mandinkas, etc.[32][33][4] Unlike the Kingdom of Sine which is more deeply rooted in "Serer-conservatism", such as the preservation of Serer religion, culture, traditions, etc.,[32][33] Saloum is more cosmopolitan and multi-religious. This explains why some Serer traditionalists who adhere to the tenets of Serer religion are reluctant to afford it the same religious status afforded to Sine as one of the sacred Serer holy sites, in spite of housing many of the Serer sites (see Serer ancient history).[4]
Saloum includes flat, swampy tideland areas inland from the Saloum Riverdelta, which allowed for a flourishing industry of salt-manufacture. The kingdom exported this highly valuable resource regionally, with Kahone as a major trade center. The coubal was a tax in kind on salt levied by the Maad Saloum. He exercised a monopoly on salt sales, and production was restricted to women to prevent rival princes from using the saltpans as a revenue source with which they could challenge the king.[34] Control of Gambia river ports allowed the export of salt east towards the Mali Empire.[35] The Saloum river delta was also a major center for the harvesting, preserving, and export of fish, oysters, and shellfish. Niominka traders went up and down the coast, and later Europeans and Lançados traded in the many creeks and inlets.[36]
The economic base in the 19th and 20th centuries shifted to groundnut cultivation and trade, exporting large quantities of nuts to Europe.[37]
Government
The main provinces of Saloum were: Mbey, where the Maad Saloum ruled directly; Joñik centered around Djilor; Siñi north of Kahone, ruled by the Bar Ngay descended from the Ndiaye dynasty of Jolof[38]; Ndukumaan east of Siñi ruled by the Ndao family, formerly the rulers of Namandirou[39]; Kajmoor and Mandaax along the Gambia river, also ruled by Ndiayes[40]; among other, smaller territories, sometimes ruled by marabouts. The ruling class were ethnically and culturally Serer, part of the Guelowar clan, and were known as ceddo who often exploited and raided the population.[41] Vassals included, at various times, Badibu, Niani, Niumi, Sabakh, and Sandial. The powers and prerogatives of local subordinate rulers varied.
The great Jaraaf was the head of the council that elected the Maad Saloum, also known as the Buur in Wolof, and would rule the nation in the event of his death until his succesor had been enthroned.[41]Buur-administrators served as governors of villages and provinces on behalf of the king, assisted by Farba who were in charge of enforcing laws and dispensing justice.[42]
↑ Thiaw, Ibrahima (2013). "From the Senegal River to Siin: The Archaeology of Sereer Migrations in North-Western Senegambia.". In Bosma, Ulbe; Kessler, Gijs; Lucassen, Leo (eds.). Migration and Membership Regimes in Global and Historical Perspective: An Introduction Studies in Global Migration History. Brill. ISBN978-9004241831.
↑ Diouf, Niokhobaye, "Chronique du royaume du Sine", Suivie de notes sur les traditions orales et les sources écrites concernant le royaume du Sine par Charles Becker et Victor Martin. (1972). Bulletin de l'Ifan, Tome 34, Série B, n° 4, (1972), p 707 (p 5)
↑ Clark, Andrew F. and Lucie Colvin Phillip (1994). Historical Dictionary of Senegal: Second Edition. Metuchen, New Jersey: The Scarecrow Press. p.232.
Almada, André Alvares (1594) Tratado breve dos Rios de Guiné do Cabo-Verde: desde o Rio do Sanagá até aos baixos de Sant' Anna 1841 edition, Porto: Typographia Commercial Portuense. online
Ba, Abdou Bouri. "Essai sur l’histoire du Saloum et du Rip"(avant-propos par Charles Becker and Victor Martin), Bulletin de l'IFAN, vol. 38, série B, number 4, October 1976.
Barry, Boubacar (1998). Senegambia and the Atlantic slave trade. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Becker, Charles. Vestiges historiques, trémoins matériels du passé clans les pays sereer. Dakar. 1993. CNRS - ORS TO M.
Boulegue, Jean (2013). Les royaumes wolof dans l'espace sénégambien (XIIIe-XVIIIe siècle) (in French). Paris: Karthala Editions.
Clark, Andrew F. and Lucie Colvin Phillips, Historical Dictionary of Senegal, Second Edition Published as No. 65 of African Historical Dictionaries, (Metuchen, New Jersey: The Scarecrow Press, 1994)
Diouf, Niokhobaye, "Chronique du royaume du Sine", Suivie de notes sur les traditions orales et les sources écrites concernant le royaume du Sine par Charles Becker et Victor Martin. (1972). Bulletin de l'Ifan, Tome 34, Série B, n° 4, (1972), p 707 (p 5)
Fall, Rokhaya (2022). Un espace de rencontre en Sénégambie: le Saalum (XVIe – XIXe siècle). Harmattan.
Gravrand, Henry. "La civilisation sereer, I. Coosan". Dakar, Nouvelles Editions Africaines (1983).
Klein, Martin (1968). Islam and Imperialism in Senegal Sine-Saloum, 1847–1914. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN0-85224-029-5.
Teixera da Mota, Avelino (1946) "A descoberta da Guiné", Boletim cultural da Guiné Portuguesa, P. 1 in Vol. 1, No. 1 (Jan), p.11-68.
Sakho, Oumar Malle (2021). ":Le sel dans la formation de l'espace du Saloum: XVIeme=XVII siecle". In Fall, Mamadou; Fall, Rokhaya; Mane, Mamadou (eds.). Bipolarisation du Senegal du XVIe - XVIIe siecle (in French). Dakar: HGS Editions. pp.101–117.
Sarr, Alioune. "Histoire du Sine-Saloum", Introduction, bibliographie et Notes par Charles Becker. BIFAN. vol. 46, Serie B, number 3–4, 1986–1987.
Kahone or Kawon is a town and urban commune near Kaolack, Senegal. It was the capital of the pre-colonial Kingdom of Saloum and is a center of Serer culture and history.
Lat Jor Ngoné Latir Jop was a nineteenth-century damel (king) of Cayor, a Wolof state that is today in Sénégal. He is today a national hero of Senegal for his resistance to French colonialism.
Mamadu Diakhou Bâ, also known as Maba Jahou Bah, Ma Ba Diakhu, Ma Ba Diakho Ba, Ma Ba Jaaxu, Mabba Jaxu Ba, was a Muslim leader in West Africa during the 19th century. He was a disciple of the Tijaniyya Sufi brotherhood and became the Almami of Saloum.
The Kingdom of Sine was a post-classical Serer kingdom along the north bank of the Saloum River delta in modern Senegal.
The Niominka people are an ethnic group in Senegal living on the islands of the Saloum River delta. They are currently classified as a subgroup of the Serer.
Maad a Signig Kumba Ndoffene Famak Joof was the King of Sine in modern-day Senegal. Maad a Sinig means king of Sine. He ruled from 1853 until his death on 23 August 1871. He was the son of Maad Souka Ndela Joof and Lingeer Gnilane Jogoy Joof. His father – Maad Souka Ndela came from The Royal House of Semou Njekeh Joof founded by Maad Semou Njekeh Joof in the early 18th century, which was the third and last Royal House of Joof family of Sine and Saloum. His paternal family ruled three Kingdoms : Sine, Kingdom of Saloum and previously the Kingdom of Baol. They descended from Maad Ndaah Njemeh Joof the 13th century King of Lâ (Laah) in Baol.
The Battle of Fandane-Thiouthioune, also known as the Battle of Somb or the Battle of Somb-Tioutioune, occurred on 18 July 1867. It was a religious war between the Serer people and the Muslim Marabouts in 19th-century Senegal and the Gambia, but it also had a political and economic dimension to it: vendetta and empire-building. Fandane, Thiouthioune and Somb were part of the pre-colonial Serer Kingdom of Sine, now part of independent Senegal.
Guelowar, also spelled Gelwar, Guelwar, Guelware, Gueleware or Gueloware, was a maternal dynasty in the pre-colonial Serer kingdoms of Sine and Saloum. They were from the Mandinka ethnic group. The offspring of Mandinka women and Serer men became the kings of Sine and Saloum. The dynasty lasted from the mid-14th century to 1969, the year both kings died.
Lamane or laman means "master of the land" in the Mandingue, Wolof, and Serer languages. The name was also sometimes the title of chiefs or kings of the Serer people of the Senegambia region which includes modern day Senegal and the Gambia. This title was also used by some kings of the Wolof kingdoms. The title is sometimes used interchangeably with the old title Maad. After the Guelowars' migration to the Sine and the foundation of the Kingdom of Sine, "lamane" denotes a provincial chief answerable to the King of Sine and Saloum.
The medieval history of the Serer people of Senegambia is partly characterised by resisting Islamization from perhaps the 11th century during the Almoravid movement, to the 19th century Marabout movement of Senegambia and continuation of the old Serer paternal dynasties.
Maad Semou Njekeh Joof was a member of the Joof Dynasty of the Kingdom of Sine now part of independent Senegal. Maad means king and Maad a Sinig means king of Sine in Serer. He was the founder of the Royal House of Semou Njekeh Joof, founded in the early eighteenth century. His royal house was the third and last royal house founded by the Joof family of Sine and Saloum. Since its foundation, at least seven kings of Sine from his royal house had succeeded to the throne including his son Maad a Sinig Boukar Tjilas Sanghaie Joof.
Teigne was a Serer title for the monarchs of the pre-colonial Kingdom of Baol, now part of present-day Senegal. The Kingdoms of Baol and Cayor became intricately linked especially post 1549 when the Faal family came to into prominence, and it was the same family that eventually ruled both Kingdoms with the exception of few interruptions, notably Lat Joor Ngoneh Latir Jobe who was of a different patrilineage.
Buumi was a royal title in the pre-colonial Serer Kingdoms of Sine, Saloum and Baol, as well as in the Jolof Empire.
This is a timeline of the history and development of Serer religion and the Serer people of Senegal, The Gambia and Mauritania. This timeline merely gives an overview of their history, consisting of calibrated archaeological discoveries in Serer countries, Serer religion, politics, royalty, etc. Dates are given according to the Common Era. For a background to these events, see Roog, Serer religion, Serer creation myth, Serer prehistory, Lamane, States headed by Serer Lamanes, Serer history and Serer people.
Maad Ndaah Njemeh Joof is one of the patriarchs of the Joof family, himself the medieval King of Laah in Baol now part of independent Senegal. He ruled from the late 13th century to the early 14th century, c. 1290. His descendants from the branch of Maad Patar Kholleh Joof ruled the pre-colonial Kingdoms of Sine, Saloum and Baol, from the 14th century to 1969. The last king of Sine and Saloum died in 1969. After their deaths, the Serer States of Sine and Saloum were incorporated into independent Senegal. His descendants went on to found three royal houses:
Lingeer was the title given to the mother or sister of a king in the Serer kingdoms of Sine, Saloum, and previously the Kingdom of Baol; and the Wolof kingdoms of Cayor, Jolof, Baol and Waalo in pre-colonial Senegal. The word "Lingeer" means "queen" or "princess" in Serer and Wolof language. The Lingeer was considered the “great princess of royal courts.” These kingdoms utilized a bilineal system, as a candidate for kingship could not succeed to the throne if he was not a member of the reigning materlineage, and thus, the Lingeer's maternal lineage was highly significant. In similarity, a candidate could not succeed to the throne as king if he was not a member of the noble reigning patriclans. That was particular so among the Serer who retained much of their old culture, customs and traditional religion where women played a significant role compared to the Wolof who adopted Islam. Various Lingeers have been noted for their resistance efforts to colonial conquest.
Maad a Sinig Maysa Wali Jaxateh Manneh was a king described in the oral tradition of the Serer pre-colonial Kingdom of Sine and the first of the Guelowar maternal dynasty to rule in Serer country. He reigned as Maad a Sinig from c. 1350 to 1370.
The patronym Faye is one of the typical surnames of the Serer people of Senegal, the Gambia and Mauritania. In French-speaking Senegal and Mauritania, and English-speaking Gambia, the surname is spelled Faye.
Maad Saloum Fode N'Gouye Joof was the last king of Saloum. He reigned as Maad Saloum from 1935 to 1969. His royal title Maad Saloum means King of Saloum in Serer.
Mbegane Ndour, also spelled Mbegaan Nduur, was the founder and first king of the Kingdom of Saloum in present-day Senegal.
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