St. Anthony Falls in Minneapolis, Minnesota, is the only natural falls on the Mississippi River. Since almost the beginning of settlement in the area by European descendants, the St. Anthony Falls have been used for waterpower. The first allowed settlers were at Ft. Snelling, where construction began in 1820.[1] A sawmill was operating 1821 and a flour mill in 1823.[2] As soon as the land at the sides of the falls became available it was purchased with the intent of using the waterpower of the falls. First lumber mills covered the falls, cutting lumber floated down the Mississippi. After 1870 flour mills started to dominate the area.[3] From 1880 to 1930 the area was the number one flour producer in the US.[4] In later years, some of the power came from steam, but in 1923 half of the waterpower used was for flour milling. [5] Other industries have also used the waterpower.
Hydroelectric production started very early in 1881, and the companies that owned the waterpower rights encouraged or developed three early major hydroelectric plants 1894/1911, 1895 and 1908. For comparison, the first large scale production of electricity in the world was at the Adams (Tesla) plant at Niagara Falls starting 1895, which used alternating current. Large scale generation was not practical before alternating current was used. After the third plant was in operation in 1908, 45% of the waterpower being used was for hydroelectric.[6] One of the historic St. Anthony Falls plants is still operating.
About 13,000 years ago Glacial River Warren drained Glacial Lake Agassiz in a huge flow of water that produced a waterfall that progressed up the Mississippi, then up the Minnesota River. As it passed through St. Paul 13,000 years ago, the waterfall was a barely imaginable 2700ft wide and 175ft high. When the waterfall went past the Mississippi - Minnesota River confluence 10,000 years ago it left an approximately 180ft high waterfall from the Mississippi river to the north. That waterfall progressed up the Mississippi producing a deep gorge and the remains of the waterfall is at St. Anthony Falls.[2][7]
The power that can be derived from a falls (or dam) is determined by the flow rate and "head". The head is the difference in elevation between the pond above the falls and the water level below the falls. At St. Anthony falls the head is 49ft., including the falls and the horseshoe dam. The head (lift) at the Ford dam (Lock and Dam No. 1) 6 miles downstream is 38ft., and that is the largest (or tied) lift/head at any dam downstream on the Mississippi. The natural drop in elevation in the short 6 miles that includes the falls, the lower dam and the Ford dam is 97ft, or 111ft. if the horseshoe dam is included.[8] All of that is the remains of the 'great waterfall'. And it is over 25% of the change in elevation from St. Anthony Falls to below the last lock and dam on the Mississippi.
The companies that developed waterpower at the falls built a v-shaped dam above the falls to divide the water between the east and west side developments. The dams also increased the "head". The Upper (Horseshoe) Dam is successor to those dams. The Eastman tunnel[9][10] disaster was fixed with a dike, but at the same time the falls were encased in a sloping wood timber apron. The current concrete spillway is the successor to that apron.
Waterpower rights
Rights to use the St. Anthony Falls waterpower was controlled by the owners of the land on the west and east bank The Minneapolis Mill Company (west bank) and the St. Anthony Falls Water Power Company (east bank) were chartered by the territorial legislature of Minnesota in 1856, and each was granted a perpetual right to use half the water flowing in the river. Those waterpower companies then leased specific flow rates (in "millpowers") to companies that actually used the water. Those waterpower rights are now owned by NSP (see NSP below) except some rights that came from Minneapolis that are owned by the St. Anthony Falls Laboratory .[9] If Crown Hydro ever runs it would have to lease rights from NSP. The Pillsbury A-mill has leased rights that have been kept up down to the present owner (and should give the A-mill priority to use water over the Crown Hydro project). NSP (the Hennepin Island Hydroelectric Plant), the St. Anthony Falls Laboratory and the Pillsbury A-mill project are the only current users of waterpower at the falls. [11]
Much later FERC (the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission) licenses hydropower projects. There are four FERC licenses in the area [12] They are for the Hennepin Island Hydroelectric Plant, the A-mill project, SAF at the lower dam and the proposed Crown Hydro project.
Note that "east bank" and "west bank" are as they would be if the river was straightened out. The "west" bank is the south side of the river in this area. Other than that, directions are normal compass directions.
Brush Electric Central Station 1882
In 1881 the Pillsbury "A" Mill added a hydroelectric Brush Electric plant, which may have been the first installation in a flour mill in the world. The Washburn mill and several other buildings installed their own Brush Systems. The Brush Systems were a generator that powered arc-lights (this was just before incandescent lights were practical).
The Minnesota Brush Electric Co., built a plant on Upton Island, on the west bank. It produced power starting September 1882 eventually using five water powered Brush generators., and became the third hydroelectric "Central Station" (supplying multiple users) hydroelectric plant in the US.[13] Soon Minneapolis street lights were added, including a 257ft high tower at Bridge Square. For comparison, Edison's Pearl Street Station also started producing electric power September 1882 (using steam). Not only is the Brush central station long gone, the remains of Upton Island were removed when the locks were installed in the 1960s.[14][15]
Waterpower was not entirely reliable, so in 1894 the generators were moved to the West Side Power Plant[9] near 3rd Avenue North and West River Road This was the first steam powered electric plant in Minneapolis. In 1886 generators were added for incandescent lights. In 1895 the generators were moved to the Main Street Station.[16]
1911 Main Street Station with Pillsbury "A" Mill behind
William de la Barre was the chief engineer for the waterpower companies. He was interested in maximizing the efficiency of waterpower use at the west side of the falls. One way was to maximize the "head" used by enlarging the headrace water power canal and making sure the turbines were near the water level below the falls. The goal was to use the entire "head".
The west bank "power canal" supplied water to numerous mills. The east bank was less effective in waterpower use. It had a tunnel that supplied the huge Pillsbury A-mill plus another mill. Plus there were sawmills that operated at the edge of the falls. De la Barre saw the potential of using the waterpower to generate electricity. He offered to lease some waterpower to Minneapolis General Electric. GE combined that with other water rights, including from sawmills that had burned down, and built the Main Street Station at the falls, constructed 1894-1895. About 38% of the generation was from waterpower (the rest was steam).
The original station burned down and a new one was built in 1911[9] that used only waterpower for three 480kW generators. The Plant was the "main generating facility" for the city, so Minneapolis General Electric wanted the plant back in operation rapidly. That resulted in a plant that was significantly more primitive than the 1908 Hennepin Island Hydroelectric Plant built three years earlier. The turbines survived the fire and were reused. That required the new generators be powered by a "rope drive" (rope used as a drive belt), and the electrical production was far smaller than the Hennepin Island Plant.[17] The Station continued to produce electricity until 1968 Shown in the picture, the plant is very visible at 206 Main St. One side, with intake gates, is against the upper pond. A dam was built in 2000 to protect that side (it is now the access to a Water Power Park).[18][19][20][11] The visible part of the plant is above the limestone cap that forms the Falls. The east-side channel of the river (around Hennepin Island) used to flow through where the Plant is and over the east-channel Falls [9][21] about 300ft. downstream from the Plant. The Plant was built between Hennepin Island and the east bank.
1895 Lower Dam - 7 of 8 - 35 Hz plus 2 - DC generators (Minnesota Historical Society)
Right after the Main Street Station, de la Barre built a "lower dam" and the lower dam hydroelectric powerhouse about a half mile below the falls. Construction was 1895-1897. This was the first dam built exclusively for hydroelectric generation in Minnesota. and had a much larger electrical capacity plant than any other plant in the state. The plant also used an innovative horizontal shaft direct mechanical connection between turbines and generators instead of a belt drive common previously.[17] Power was sold to the streetcar company (TCRT), which was replacing old streetcars with electric streetcars starting 1889. Generation was 35Hz (8 generators) and DC (2 generators), 8.5 megawatt using a 19ft head.
About 1950 electric streetcars were replaced by buses and The TCRT no longer bought power. At the same time the Corps of Engineers rebuilt the dam adding a lock and auxiliary lock, and creating a higher 24ft. head. By 1953 the plant had been modified to be 60Hz, 8.25 megawatts, 10 generators using vertical shafts. The new dam, completed 1956, incorporated the section of old dam including the powerhouse.[22]
In 1987 a large hole eroded under the powerplant that drained the upper pond. The powerhouse was damaged and was removed 1988. Reconstructing a powerplant was determined to not be feasible. (The lower dam is outside the St. Anthony Falls Historic District.)[23][24][25][11]
More recently, a hydroelectric power generating system was installed in the auxiliary lock at the lower dam. The project, by Brookfield/SAF Hydropower, is 8.98-megawatt and was online December 2011. [26] FERC license 12451 was issued in 2016 to "SAF Hydroelectric" for project "Lower St. Anthony Falls", expires 2056.
In yet another De la Barre project, 1906-1908 he designed and built the Hennepin Island Hydroelectric Plant.[9] It is located near the center of Hennepin Island and is not very visible. A 400ft. headrace canal connects the plant to the upper pond..
The plant was the first in the US to use "surplus power". Waterpower users had a right to a specified flow. The plant operated on flow that was above that total amount.
The plant originally produced power at 35Hz, 9.9 megawatts, using four horizontal shaft direct drive generators. The total output was leased to Minneapolis General Electric who subleased it to the streetcar system.
In 1955 as streetcars were replaced by buses the plant was converted to 60Hz and a fifth generator was added for a total capacity of 12.4 megawatts. The fifth generator was vertical shaft, with the turbine below the generator. This places the turbine at a lower level than horizontal shaft setups, which allows the available head to be better used. Vertical shaft installations were not practical until bearings were developed that could bear the weight of the generator rotor.
The rotating turbine "runners" were replaced and generators were rewound, completed 2013. The historic turbine outer shells were not affected. The changes raised the capacity from 12.4 megawatts to 13.9 megawatts and raised the maximum flow from 4,025 cfs to 4,366 cfs.
FERC license 2056 was reissued in 2004 (amended 2011) to "Northern States Power Co (MN)" for project "St. Anthony Falls", expires 2034. This license also covers significant parts of the Falls, including the horseshoe dam and the dams across the end of Hennepin Island from the horseshoe dam to the east bank. In the past the Main Street Station, lower dam and Consolidated Hydro have been under this license.
Consolidated Hydro Plant
As west bank flour mills left the Falls and the buildings were torn down, Northern States Power used the turbines at seven of the sites to generate 2.73 megawatts of electricity. This was called the Consolidated Hydro Plant. Construction of the lock at the falls blocked the "power canal" which was the headrace for the hydro sites, ending the Consolidated Hydroelectric Plant 1959.[31][32][11]
The Pillsbury "A" Mill[9][33] is on the east bank at Main Street and Third Ave Southeast. The mill dominated Main St. when built in 1881 and was the largest flour mill in the world for forty years. It had a headrace tunnel,[9] two drop pits for two turbines, and two tailrace tunnels. All but the top half of the headrace is constructed in bedrock.[34][35] The Mill ended waterpower use in 1955 and ended flour production in 2003.[36]
The Mill was converted to the income limited A-Mill Artist Lofts by Dominium in 2015. As part of that conversion a hydroelectric plant was installed with a 5ft. diameter penstock pipe in the much larger headrace tunnel, a turbine and generator in the east dropshaft and a concrete conduit in the much larger east tailrace tunnel. All that can be seen of the project is the intake trashrack and gate driver at the riverbank at Second Ave. Southeast and water out of the east tailrace tunnel. Production up to 0.6 megawatts, about 17% of the waterpower used by Pillsbury. [37] On-line 2016.[38][39]
FERC license 14628 was issued in 2015 to "Minneapolis Leased Housing Assn IV" for project "A-mill Artist Lofts", 0.6 megawatts, expires 2065.
Northern States Power
Northern States Power Co is the corporate successor to the historic hydroelectric projects in this article, and wound up with the historic assets - three hydroelectric plants (one still operating, one demolished) and most of the water rights.
The Minnesota Brush Electric Company was absorbed by the Minneapolis General Electric Co. by 1893. In 1912 Consumers Power acquired the Minneapolis General Electric Company (and Main Street Station). Consumers Power reorganized in 1916 and became Northern States Power [40]
The St. Anthony Falls Water Power Company built the Lower Dam and Hydroelectric Plant, then the Hennepin Island Hydroelectric Plant. The St. Anthony Falls Water Power Company and Minneapolis Mill Company merged into the Pillsbury-Washburn Flour Mills Company in 1889. Assets wound up with Pillsbury Flour Mills Company in 1923, and that year the waterpower companies (and the Lower Dam Hydroelectric Plant, and Hennepin Island Hydroelectric Plant and the waterpower rights) were sold to a subsidiary of Northern States Power. The waterpower companies became a direct part of NSP in 1937. [41][42]
NSP became part of Xcel Energy in 2000 through mergers. [43] It is now Northern States Power Company (d/b/a Xcel Energy).
Under its FERC licence, NSP/Xcel is responsible for elements that maintain the falls including the apron/spillway, the horseshoe dam and several dams holding the upper pond. (The dike that fixed the Eastman tunnel disaster is not included.)
Water over the falls
The 2004 FERC license renewal for NSP (the Hennepin Island Power Plant) requires a minimum flow over the Falls 2 inches deep. That translates to a flow of about 100 cfs (cubic feet per second). If the flow drops below that NSP has to reduce its water flow. The requirement actually is that the flow is required only when people are likely to be present, during daylight, and not in the winter.
The revised A-mill FERC licence allows the A-mill to use water when there is flow more than what NSP requires, with the same requirement of 100 cfs over the Falls.
The 2004 NSP license renewal also requires that NSP execute an Aesthetic Flow Adequacy Plan that determines what the flow should be. That includes opinion surveys from people at the falls using pictures of different flow rates. The report from NSP to FERC was issued March 30, 2017 and recommends a minimum flow of 300 cfs all the time. [44] The Minneapolis Park Board, and others, want a minimum flow of 2000 cfs. FERC will eventually decide what the minimum flow rate should be (hasn't happened by May 6, 2019). This is currently a hot issue. [45][46]
Proposals for new hydroelectric plants
Crown Hydro
The original Crown Hydro FERC license was for two generators, 3.4 megawatts total, with the generators located in the west bank Crown Roller Mill building, presumably using the original wheel pits and tailraces. Crown Hydro couldn't come to an agreement with the building owner.
Crown Hydro then proposed a license change locating the generators at the former Fuji-Ya Restaurant site. The Minneapolis Park Board said it owned the site and opposed the change. FERC determined that the Park Board did own the site and Crown Hydro had no way to use it.
Crown Hydro then proposed another license change locating the generators about 250ft. north of the Crown Roller Mill on property owned by the Corps of Engineers (associated with the locks). This location results in potential impact to numerous historic properties, particularly from a new tailrace tunnel. That requires a Section 106 review (which protects historically significant properties such as the Ida Dorsey Bordello). Review is ongoing. There is, however, strong opposition to this project, including by the Park Board. [47]
FERC license 11175 was issued in 1999 to "Crown Hydro. LLC" for project "Crown Mill", 3.4 megawatts, expires 2049.
Symphony Hydro
Symphony Hydro proposes putting generator panels inside one of the locks (which are inactive to control "flying carp"). Generation capacity would be 3.4 megawatts. This proposal would be dropped if the currently 20 year old Crown Hydro project progresses. Symphony has a preliminary FERC permit, and appears to still be alive. [48]
Saint Anthony Falls, or the Falls of Saint Anthony, located at the northeastern edge of downtown Minneapolis, Minnesota, is the only natural major waterfall on the Mississippi River. Throughout the mid-to-late 1800s, various dams were built atop the east and west faces of the falls to support the milling industry that spurred the growth of the city of Minneapolis. In 1880, the central face of the falls was reinforced with a sloping timber apron to stop the upstream erosion of the falls. In the 1950s, the apron was rebuilt with concrete, which makes up the most visible portion of the falls today. A series of locks were constructed in the 1950s and 1960s to extend navigation to points upstream.
Small hydro is the development of hydroelectric power on a scale suitable for local community and industry, or to contribute to distributed generation in a regional electricity grid. Exact definitions vary, but a "small hydro" project is less than 50 megawatts (MW), and can be further subdivide by scale into "mini" (<1MW), "micro" (<100 kW), "pico" (<10 kW). In contrast many hydroelectric projects are of enormous size, such as the generating plant at the Three Gorges Dam at 22,500 megawatts or the vast multiple projects of the Tennessee Valley Authority.
The Pillsbury A-Mill is a former flour mill located on the east bank of the Mississippi River in Minneapolis, Minnesota. It was the world's largest flour mill for 40 years. Completed in 1881, it was owned by the Pillsbury Company and operated two of the most powerful direct-drive waterwheels ever built, each capable of generating 1,200 horsepower . In 1901 one of the turbines was replaced with a 2,500 horsepower one. Both the mill and its headrace tunnel are contributing resources to the St. Anthony Falls Historic District, which is on the National Register of Historic Places. The mill is also independently on the NRHP. The mill was named a National Historic Landmark in 1966 and has since been converted into the A-Mill Artist Lofts.
Lake Chelan Dam officially known as the Lake Chelan Hydroelectric Project is located approximately 32 miles (51 km) north of the city of Wenatchee in Chelan County. The dam is located at the lower or southeasterly end of 50.4 miles long Lake Chelan, and is within the limits of the city of Chelan. The powerhouse is located near the community of Chelan Falls. The reservoir has 677,400 acre-feet (835,600,000 m3) of usable water storage. The 10-year average generation for the Project is 365,000 megawatt hours.
The Conowingo Dam is a large hydroelectric dam in the lower Susquehanna River near the town of Conowingo, Maryland. The medium-height, masonry gravity dam is one of the largest non-federal hydroelectric dams in the U.S., and the largest dam in the state of Maryland.
Ford Dam, officially known as Lock and Dam No. 1, is on the Upper Mississippi River and is located between Minneapolis and Saint Paul, Minnesota just north of the confluence of the Mississippi with the Minnesota River at Mississippi River mile 847.9, in Minneapolis. The powerhouse portion was previously owned by the Ford Motor Company, which operated a hydroelectric power station to feed electricity to its Twin Cities Assembly Plant on the east side of the river. It was sold to Brookfield Power Co. in April 2008. The dual-lock facility and dam was built and is operated by the St. Paul district of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers' Mississippi Valley Division.
The York Haven Dam is a low head, run-of-the river, dam and hydroelectric plant that is located on the Susquehanna River in the United States.
The Nathpa Jhakri Dam is a concrete gravity dam on the Sutlej river in Himachal Pradesh, India. The primary purpose of the dam is hydroelectric power production and it supplies a 1,500 megawatts (2,000,000 hp) underground power station with water. Before reaching the power station, water is diverted through a 27.4 km (17 mi) headrace tunnel. Construction on the project began in 1993 and it was complete in 2004. The last two of the 250 megawatts (340,000 hp) Francis turbine-generators went online in March 2004. It is owned by SJVN.
Run-of-river hydroelectricity (ROR) or run-of-the-river hydroelectricity is a type of hydroelectric generation plant whereby little or no water storage is provided. Run-of-the-river power plants may have no water storage at all or a limited amount of storage, in which case the storage reservoir is referred to as pondage. A plant without pondage is subject to seasonal river flows, so the plant will operate as an intermittent energy source. Conventional hydro uses reservoirs, which regulate water for flood control, dispatchable electrical power, and the provision of fresh water for agriculture.
The Hennepin Island Hydroelectric Plant is at St. Anthony Falls in Minneapolis, Minnesota. It has historically been an important part of St. Anthony Falls Hydroelectric Development. The plant is currently operated by Northern States Power/Xcel Energy. The facility stands on Hennepin Island near the Pillsbury "A" Mill at Saint Anthony Falls, the river's only waterfall, which powered the city's early sawmills, grist mills and other industry. There are five generating units.
The following are all the contributing resources to the Saint Anthony Falls Historic District in Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States. The District is listed on the National Register of Historic Places, thus these properties are on the NRHP. The "period of significance" of the District was 1858–1941. The district's archaeological record is considered to be one of the most-endangered historic sites in Minnesota.
The Eastman tunnel, also called the Hennepin Island tunnel, was a 2,000-foot-long (610 m) underground passage in Saint Anthony, Minnesota, dug beneath the Mississippi River riverbed between 1868 and 1869 to create a tailrace so water-powered business could be located upstream of Saint Anthony Falls on Nicollet Island. The tunnel ran downstream from Nicollet Island, beneath Hennepin Island, and exited below Saint Anthony Falls.
A water power engine includes prime movers driven by water and which may be classified under three categories:
Water pressure motors, having a piston and cylinder with inlet and outlet valves: their action is that analogous of a steam- or gas-engine with water as the working fluid – see water engine
Water wheels
Turbines, deriving their energy from high velocity jet of jets, or from water supplied under pressure and passing through the vanes of a runner which is thereby caused to rotate
The Marseilles Hydro Plant, also known as the Marseilles Hydro Development or the Marseilles Hydro Power Station, is a historic hydroelectric power station along the Illinois River in Marseilles, Illinois, USA.
Mechanicville Hydroelectric Plant is a 18.3-acre (7.4 ha) national historic district located at Mechanicville in Saratoga County, New York. The listing included one contributing building and three contributing structures. The district dates to 1897 and includes notable Queen Anne architecture.
Hydropower policy in the United States includes all the laws, rules, regulations, programs and agencies that govern the national hydroelectric industry. Federal policy concerning waterpower developed over considerable time before the advent of electricity, and at times, has changed considerably, as water uses, available scientific technologies and considerations developed to the present day; over this period the priority of different, pre-existing and competing uses for water, flowing water and its energy, as well as for the water itself and competing available sources of energy have changed. Increased population and commercial demands spurred this developmental growth and many of the changes since, and these affect the technology's use today.
The Rocky Mountain Hydroelectric Plant is a pumped-storage power plant located 10 miles (16 km) northwest of Rome in the U.S. state of Georgia. It is named after Rock Mountain on top of which the plant's upper reservoir is located. Construction on the plant began in 1977 and it was commissioned in 1995. After upgrades were completed in 2011, the plant has an installed capacity of 1,095 megawatts (1,468,000 hp). It is owned by both Oglethorpe Power and Georgia Power which have 75 percent and 25 percent stakes, respectively.
The Andekaleka Dam is a gravity dam on the Vohitra river near Andekaleka in eastern Madagascar. The primary purpose of the dam is hydroelectric power generation and it diverts water from the Vohitra east into a 4 kilometres (2.5 mi) headrace tunnel where it reaches a 91 megawatts (122,000 hp) underground power station. After water charges the turbine-generators, it travels down a 500 metres (1,600 ft) tailrace tunnel before it reenters the Vohitra River. The drop in elevation between the dam and power station affords a hydraulic head of 235 metres (771 ft). The dam and power station were funded by the World Bank at a cost of US$142.1 million. It was constructed between 1978 and 1982. The power station can house up to four generators. The first two were operational in 1982 and a third in 2012. Generator one and two host Vevey and Jeumont turbines while the third is made by HEC. They all use Francis reaction turbines which typically range from 10 to 700MW and with water head operating from 10 to 600 meters
The John Butters Power Station is a conventional hydroelectric power station located in Western Tasmania, Australia. The power station forms part of the King – Yolande River Power Scheme and is owned and operated by Hydro Tasmania.
The Ottenbach Small Hydro is a 1920 electrified small hydroelectric power station of the former Silk Weaving Mill A. F. Haas & Co. in the Swiss village of Ottenbach. It is preserved in its original condition of 1920, still able to operate, aimed to be an historical witness of the industrial archaeology. The ensemble of factory, power plant and hydraulic structures is a cultural asset under preservation order.
1 2 3 4 5 FERC Online eLibrary, Docket: P-2056, search for: May 25, 2011, Application for non-capacity amendment Includes history of hydroelectric projects
↑ Hess 1991, Multiple sources, including Kane, say this was the first. Hess names two earlier ones, and says this was probably the first central station in its own building.
↑ "Hennepin Island Hydro Generating Station". Xcel. Retrieved April 1, 2019. Note - "the current plant" was not built in "1882", did not power "arc lights" and was not the "site of early sawmills"
↑ "Hydropower project/Pillsbury A Mill". General Mills (General Mills acquired Pillsbury). September 14, 2017. Retrieved April 1, 2019. Short 1 minute VIDEO of the hydroelectric installation
↑ FERC Online eLibrary, Docket: P-2056, search for: March 30, 2017, Aesthetic Flow Adequacy Plan
↑ FERC Online eLibrary, search for: Docket: P-2056, March 8, 2004, New License (NSP) Docket: P-14628, November 10, 2004, Rehearing
↑ St. Anthony Falls - water use other than the Falls Flow rate at FERC licensed capacity (cfs) 4366 - Hennepin Island Hydroelectric Plant 200 - A-Mill 1000 - Crown Hydro - proposed project Historic waterpower rights 300 - St. Anthony Laboratory Proposed projects 30-50 - East bluff waterfall - proposed in NSP 2004 license 60 - Mill ruins park ?? - White water park (probably lower dam) FERC Online eLibrary, Docket: P-14628, search for: January 27, 2016, Operation Compliance
↑ FERC Online eLibrary, Docket: P-11175, search for: March 22, 1999, Original license April 30, 2015, 2nd Amended license November 26, 2016, Deny Motion
The application from the City of Minneapolis to the National Park Service to place the St. Anthony Falls Historic District on the National Register of Historic Places (it was placed there).
Consists of the original 1971 section and a much longer 1991 addition. It doesn't read like a book, but has extensive information on the significance of the district and descriptions of "contributing resources". Of particular interest are descriptions of the sites and the equipment that is (or was) inside.
Kane, Lucile (1987). The Falls of St. Anthony: The Waterfall That Built Minneapolis. Minnesota Historical Society.
A heavily footnoted standard history of the development at the Falls.
Tour of the Hennepin Island Hydroelectric Plant during Open Doors Minneapolis (2019) 3:17
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