Status of Ali in Sunni Islam
Ali is recognized in Sunni Islam as a close companion, and Sunni sources contain numerous prophetic sayings (hadiths) in his praise. Ali had an excellent knowledge of the Quran, the central religious text of Islam, to the point that Ibn Abbas (d. c. 687), a foremost early Muslim exegete, credited all his interpretations to him. Ali is also the transmitter of hundreds of prophetic hadiths in canonical Sunni sources. Sunni Islam celebrates Ali for his dedication to the cause of Islam, for his piety, wisdom, eloquence, courage on battlefield, and magnanimity in victory. Ali is moreover the common source of mystical and spiritual currents within both Sunni and Shia sects of Islam. Pilgrimage to the shrine of Ali and praying for his intercession in the afterlife remains popular among Sunnis. However, reverence for Ali in Sunni Islam has declined in recent times with the rise of Wahhabism, a fundamentalist movement within Sunni Islam.
Political views
When Muhammad died in 632, Ali had his own claims to leadership, apparently in reference to Muhammad's announcement shortly before his death at the Ghadir Khumm. Ali thus opposed the caliphate of Abu Bakr, who was hastily elected in the absence of Ali and the rest of Muhammad's kin. Perhaps in the interest of the Muslim unity, Ali eventually accepted the temporal rule of the first three caliphs, but without giving up his claims as the designated successor of Muhammad. In particular, even though Ali may have advised Abu Bakr and Umar on government and religious matters, the conflicts between him and the first two caliphs are also well-documented, but largely downplayed in Sunni sources, in line with their tendency to neutralize the conflicts among companions. These conflicts were epitomized during the proceedings of the electoral council in 644, when Ali refused to be bound by the precedence of the first two caliphs. Ali was also critical of Uthman, and in this he was joined by most of the senior companions. In early Sunni sources, Ali is portrayed as a restraining influence on Uthman without directly opposing him. By contrast, Shia Islam views Ali as the rightful successor of Muhammad and views Ali's predecessors as usurpers of his rights.
Ali and his three predecessors are acknowledged in Sunni tradition as the Rashidun caliphs, that is, those Muslim rulers who are thought to have fulfilled the moral, religious, and judicial qualifications for a just rule. Legal decisions of Ali are thus considered binding in Sunni Islam, and sayings attributed to Ali are often cited by Sunni scholars to counter Shia positions. This acceptance of Ali, however, appears to be a late development in Sunni Islam, probably dating to the ninth century. Indeed, as far as the Umayyads were concerned, their rule began with Uthman, and Ali was a mere pretender. Similarly, many proto-Sunnis considered Uthman as the last of the Rashidun caliphs. By contrast, the Murji'a (lit. 'deferrers') deferred judgment about the early caliphs in the interest of Muslim unity. Their position was incorporated into Sunni thought by the prominent traditionist Ahmad ibn Hanbal (d. 855), who created a hierarchy of companions in which Abu Bakr, Umar, and Uthman are placed immediately above Ali, each of the four being the most meritorious person of their time. Through this hierarchy, Ali was eventually accommodated in Sunni Islam, alongside those companions who fought against him, about whom Sunnis are expected to defer judgment, lest they stoke further unrest and division in the Muslim community. The Sunni hierarchy of companions is challenged by those prophetic sayings that elevate Ali above others, including, "I am from Ali and Ali is from me," and "Whoever counts me as his patron ( mawla ), then Ali is his patron." These hadiths have been reinterpreted accordingly. For instance, some Sunni scholars have linked the word mawla to the financial dependence of Ali on Muhammad, who raised the former in his household as a child. Yet other Sunni authors acknowledge the religious prominence of Ali but do not consider that a basis for political succession.
Sunni praise for Ali
Umar is said to have praised Ali as the "best of judges." The Mu'tazilite scholar Ibn Abi al-Hadid (d. 1258) writes in his commentary on Nahj al-balagha that Ali corrected a ruling by Umar for a woman accused of adultery, after which the second caliph said, "Were it not for Ali, Umar would indeed have been destroyed." Similar sentiments are attributed to Umar in the Sunni Kitab al-Isti'ab and al-Bidaya wa'l-nihaya and the Shia Bihar al-anwar . Muhammad al-Shafi'i (d. 820), founder of one of the four schools of Sunni jurisprudence, commended Ali as "the best imam, the best guide," and composed a poem in his praise. In reference to the statement attributed to Ali, "Ask me about anything till I am among you," Ahmad ibn Hanbal (d. 855), founder of another Sunni school, writes that Ali was the only companion who made this claim, thus suggesting that Ali was the only companion who was qualified to make such a claim. Ibn Hanbal also commented about the caliphate of Ali, "Do you think the caliphate adorned Ali? No, rather it was Ali who adorned the caliphate."
Ali ibn Abi Talib was the cousin and son-in-law of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, the fourth Rashidun caliph and the first Shia Imam, who ruled from 656 to 661. Born to Abu Talib ibn Abd al-Muttalib and Fatima bint Asad, a young Ali was raised by his elder cousin Muhammad and was among the first to accept his teachings. Ali played a pivotal role in the early years of Islam when Muslims were severely persecuted in Mecca.
Hasan ibn Ali ibn Abi Talib was a prominent early Islamic Alid political and religious leader. The eldest son of Ali and Fatima and a grandson of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, Hasan briefly ruled as caliph from January 661 until August 661. He is considered as the second Imam in Shia Islam, succeeding Ali and preceding his brother Husayn. As a grandson of the prophet, he is part of the ahl al-bayt and the ahl al-kisa, and also participated in the event of mubahala.
The Rashidun are the first four caliphs who led the Muslim community following the death of Muhammad: Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, and Ali.
The Saqifa of the Banu Sa'ida clan refers to the location of an event in early Islam where some of the companions of the Islamic prophet Muhammad pledged their allegiance to Abu Bakr as the first caliph and successor to Muhammad shortly after his death in 11 AH. The Saqifa meeting is among the most controversial events in early Islam, due to the exclusion of a large number of Muhammad's companions, including his immediate family and notably Ali, his cousin and son-in-law. The conflicts that arose soon after Muhammad's death are considered to be the main cause of the current division among Muslims. Those who accepted Abu Bakr's caliphate were later labeled Sunnis, while the supporters of Ali's right to caliphate were later labeled Shia.
The Election of Uthman refers to the appointment of Uthman ibn Affan as the third caliph by a committee, which was assembled by the dying caliph Umar in 23 AH. The committee likely consisted of six early Muslims from the Quraysh tribe, including the prophet Muhammad's second cousin and son-in-law Uthman and Muhammad's first cousin and son-in-law Ali ibn Abi Talib. The deciding vote was given to Uthman's brother-in-law Abd al-Rahman ibn Awf, who appointed the former as the next caliph after the deliberations stalled. The choice of the wealthy Uthman is often explained as intended to guard the interests of the Quraysh and to follow the practices of the first two caliphs, namely, Abu Bakr and Umar. The committee has been criticized for its bias towards Uthman and for its exclusion of the Ansar.
The issue of succession following the death of the Islamic prophet Muhammad is the central issue in the schisms that divided the early Muslim community in the first century of Islamic history into numerous schools and branches. The two most prominent branches that emerged from these divisions are Sunni and Shia branches of Islam. Sunni Islam asserts that Abu Bakr rightfully succeeded Muhammad through a process of election. In contrast, Shia Islam maintains that Ali ibn Abi Talib was Muhammad's designated successor.
Umm Kulthūm bint 'Alī, also known as Zaynab al-Ṣughrā, was the youngest daughter of Fatima and Ali ibn Abi Talib. The former was the daughter of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and the latter was his cousin. Ali is also recognized as the fourth Rashidun caliph and the first Shia imam. A young Umm Kulthum lost her grandfather and mother in 632 CE. While she was still a child, the second Rashidun caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab asked for her hand in marriage, which was resisted by Umm Kulthum and her father Ali, possibly due to Umar's reputation for harsh treatment of women. By one Sunni account, Ali finally agreed to the marriage when Umar enlisted the support of prominent Muslims for his proposal.
The First Fitna was the first civil war in the Islamic community. It led to the overthrow of the Rashidun Caliphate and the establishment of the Umayyad Caliphate. The civil war involved three main battles between the fourth Rashidun caliph, Ali, and the rebel groups.
The Battle of Siffin was fought in 657 CE between the fourth Rashidun caliph Ali ibn Abi Talib and the rebellious governor of Syria Mu'awiya ibn Abi Sufyan. The battle is named after its location Siffin on the banks of the Euphrates. The fighting stopped after the Syrians called for arbitration to escape defeat, to which Ali agreed under pressure from some of his troops. The arbitration process ended inconclusively in 658 though it strengthened the Syrians' support for Mu'awiya and weakened the position of Ali. The battle is considered part of the First Fitna and a major step towards the establishment of the Umayyad Caliphate.
Ali ibn Abi Talib was the cousin and son-in-law of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. Ali contributed significantly to Islam in its early years and was likely the first male to accept the teachings of Muhammad. Ali is accorded an almost legendary place in Islam as a paragon of virtues, a fount of wisdom, and a fearless but magnanimous warrior. Yet it is in Shia Islam that Ali is regarded as the foremost companion of Muhammad and his rightful successor through divinely-ordained designation at the Ghadir Khumm. When Muhammad died in 632 CE, Ali indeed had his own claims to leadership but eventually accepted the temporal rule of the first three caliphs in the interest of Muslim unity. The three caliphs are viewed in Shia Islam as illegitimate rulers and usurpers of Ali's rights. Ali himself succeeded to the caliphate in 656 but his rule was immediately challenged by multiple pretenders and he was assassinated in 661.
The Ghadīr Khumm was a gathering of Muslims to attend a sermon delivered by the Islamic prophet Muhammad on 16 March 632 CE. The gathering is said to have taken place by the ghadir (pool) in the wadi of Khumm, located near the then settlement of al-Juhfa on the path between Mecca and Medina, where Muhammad halted the large caravan of Muslims who had accompanied him in the Farewell Pilgrimage, his only Hajj ritual.
From 613 to 619 CE, the Islamic prophet Muhammad gathered in his hometown of Mecca a small following of those who embraced his message of Islam and thus became Muslims. The first person who professed Islam was his wife, Khadija bint Khuwaylid. The identity of the second male Muslim, after Muhammad himself, is nevertheless disputed largely along sectarian lines, as Shia and some Sunni sources identify him as the first Shia imam Ali ibn Abi Talib, a child at the time, who grew up in the household of his uncle, Muhammad. Other sources report that the first male convert was Abu Bakr, who later succeeded Muhammad as the first Sunni caliph, or Muhammad's foster son, Zayd ibn Haritha. While it is difficult to establish the chronological order of early conversions, the identities of early Muslims is known with some certainty.
The Shaqshaqiya sermon is a controversial text in Nahj al-balagha, the best-known collection of sermons, letters, and sayings attributed to Ali ibn Abi Talib, who was the fourth Rashidun caliph, the first Shia imam, and the cousin and son-in-law of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. The sermon is highly critical of the predecessors of Ali, namely, Abu Bakr, Umar, and Uthman, accusing them of usurping the right of Ali to the caliphate.
Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyya was a son of Ali ibn Abi Talib, who was the fourth Rashidun caliph and the first Shia imam. Ibn al-Hanafiyya was an effective lieutenant for his father Ali during his caliphate. After the assassination of Ali and the deaths of his two sons Hasan and Husayn, many recognized Ibn al-Hanafiyya as the head of the House of Ali. Claiming to represent Ibn al-Hanafiyya, Mukhtar al-Thaqafi rose in Iraq in 686 to avenge Husayn and his relatives, who were massacred in 680 CE by the Umayyad caliph Yazid bin Mu'awiya. The quiescent Ibn al-Hanafiyya did not actively associate with this rebellion but was still rescued by Mukhtar when he was detained by the rival caliph Ubayd Allah ibn Ziyad. Support for Ibn al-Hanafiyya continued even after the defeat and death of Mukhtar in 686–687 in the form of the Kaysanites, a now-extinct Shia sect that traced the imamate to Ibn al-Hanafiyya and his descendants, particularly his son Abu Hashim. After the death of Ibn al-Hanafiyya in 700–701, some Kaysanites declared that he was the Mahdi, the eschatological Islamic leader who would reappear in the end of time and eradicate injustice and evil. The Kaysanites later provided the organizational structure for the Abbasids to overthrew the Umayyads in 750–751.
Cursing Ali was a state policy introduced by Mu'awiya ibn Abi Sufyan, the first Umayyad caliph, which mandated publicly cursing Ali ibn Abi Talib, the cousin and son-in-law of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, who was also the fourth Rashidun caliph and the first Shia Imam. Mu'awiya was the incumbent governor of Syria who had rebelled against Ali ostensibly to avenge the previous caliph Uthman, who was in turn assassinated by some provincial dissidents angered by his policies. Ali and Mu'awiya fought the inconclusive Battle of Siffin in 657 CE and remained enemies until the assassination of Ali in 661, which paved the way for the caliphate of Mu'awiya in the same year. The public cursing of Ali continued after Mu'awiya and was finally abandoned some sixty years later by the pious Umar II. The policy likely served as a propaganda measure, and also helped provoke, identify, and then crush the supporters of Ali, whom the Umayyads considered a threat.
The attack on Fatima's house refers to a disputed violent attack on the house of Fatima, daughter of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. The attack is said to have taken place shortly after the death of Muhammad in 11 AH and was instigated by his successor Abu Bakr and led by Umar, another companion. The purpose of the attack was to arrest Fatima's husband Ali, who had withheld his pledge of allegiance to Abu Bakr. Her injuries during the raid might have caused the young Fatima's miscarriage and death within six months of Muhammad.
Administrative policies of Ali ibn Abi Talib highlights the policies of Ali, the son-in-law and cousin of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. Ali is recognized as the first Shia imam and the fourth Rashidun caliph. He was acclaimed as the caliph in 656 CE after the assassination of his predecessor Uthman, who was killed by Egyptian rebels amidst widespread accusations of nepotism, injustice, and corruption. Ali undertook radical changes upon accession and his strictly egalitarian policies garnered him the support of underprivileged groups while alienating the powerful Quraysh tribe, some of whom revolted against Ali under the pretext of revenge for Uthman in the Battle of the Camel (656) and the protracted Battle of Siffin (657). The latter fight ended in arbitration and led to the creation of the Kharijites, a member of whom is thought to be responsible for the assassination of Ali in 661. For some, the brief caliphate of Ali was characterized by his honesty, his unbending devotion to Islam, his equal treatment of the supporters, and his magnanimity towards his defeated enemies, while others criticize his policies for idealism and lack of political expediency.
The Battle of the Camel took place outside of Basra, Iraq, in 36 AH. The battle was fought between the army of the fourth caliph Ali, on one side, and the rebel army led by Aisha, Talha and Zubayr, on the other side. Ali was the cousin and son-in-law of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, while Aisha was a widow of Muhammad, of whom Talha and Zubayr were both prominent companions. Ali emerged victorious from the battle, Talha and Zubayr were both killed, and Aisha was sent back to Hejaz afterward. The triumvirate had revolted against Ali ostensibly to avenge the assassination of the third caliph Uthman, although Aisha and Talha are both known to have actively opposed him. The three also called for the removal of Ali from office and for a Qurayshite council (shura) with Talha and Zubayr to appoint his successor.
Ali ibn Abi Talib, the fourth Rashidun caliph and the first Shia Imam, was assassinated during the morning prayer on 28 January 661 CE, equivalent to 19 Ramadan 40 AH. He died of his wounds about two days after the Kharijite dissident Ibn Muljim struck him over his head with a poison-coated sword at the Great Mosque of Kufa, located in Kufa, in present-day Iraq. He was about sixty-two years of age at the time of his death.
Ali ibn Abi Talib was acclaimed in 656 CE as the fourth caliph after the death of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. Following the 656 assassination of the third caliph Uthman in Medina by provincial rebels who had grievances about injustice and corruption, the prophet's cousin and son-in-law was elected to the caliphate by the rebels, the Ansar, and the Muhajirun. While the election of Ali faced little opposition, his support was limited among the Quraysh, some of whom aspired to the caliphate. The Umayyads and some others thereby left Medina––some thus breaking their oaths of allegiance––and soon rebelled against Ali.
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