The Private Life of Chairman Mao

Last updated
The Private Life of Chairman Mao: The Memoirs of Mao's Personal Physician
Privatelifeofchairmanmaocover.jpg
Author Li Zhisui
CountryUnited States
LanguageEnglish
Subject Mao Zedong
Genre Memoir
Publisher Chatto & Windus
Publication date
1994
Pages682
ISBN 0-7011-4018-6
OCLC 774414272

The Private Life of Chairman Mao: The Memoirs of Mao's Personal Physician is a memoir by Li Zhisui, one of the physicians to Mao Zedong, former Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party, which was first published in 1994. Li had emigrated to the United States in the years after Mao's death. The book describes the time during which Li was Mao's physician, beginning with his return to China after training in Australia, through the height of Mao's power to his death in 1976 including the diverse details of Mao's personality, sexual proclivities, party politics and personal habits.

Contents

The book was controversial and ultimately banned in the People's Republic of China. The archive about Mao is strictly confidential and controlled by the General Office of the Chinese Communist Party.

Background and publication

Li Zhisui was Mao Zedong's personal physician for twenty-two years, and Li claimed that during this time he became a close confidant of the Chinese leader. After emigrating to the United States, Li wrote The Private Life of Chairman Mao based on his memories of his time with Mao. The biography was based on his recollection of journals he had kept, which he had burned during the Cultural Revolution.

The original manuscript was written by Li, translated from his native Chinese into English by Professor Tai Hung-chao, then edited by Anne F. Thurston. The foreword to the book was written by Professor Andrew J. Nathan of Columbia University, and the book was published by Random House in 1994. Along with the Random House publication, a Chinese language edition was released by the Chinese Times Publishing Company of Tapei. [1] The book was banned by the government in the People's Republic of China, as have many works criticizing Mao on a personal level, [2] and they subsequently also publicly denounced both the book and a BBC documentary that used it as a basis. [3]

After publication, several people criticized the publication process. Tai claimed that the English-language publisher, Random House, wanted more sensationalist elements to the book than Li had provided, in particular requesting more information about Mao's sexual relationships. Despite Li's own protestations, they overruled him, and put such claims in the published text. [4] [ citation not found ] Li claimed that Thurston cut substantial parts of his original manuscript without his knowledge. [5] [ citation not found ] Alterations to the Chinese version of the book included the removal of controversial statements about the Chinese leader Deng Xiaoping, who was still alive and in power of the People's Republic at the time of publication. [6]

Li believed that the Chinese language edition of the book was not directly based upon his original Chinese manuscript, but that it was instead a translation based upon the English version. [5] [ citation not found ]

Synopsis

Mao Zedong and Zhang Yufeng in 1964 Mao Zedong and Zhang Yufeng in 1964.jpg
Mao Zedong and Zhang Yufeng in 1964

The book discusses the 22 years for which Li maintains he was Mao's personal physician. After a brief summary of his family and personal history, Li discusses how he came to treat first the senior Chinese communist officials, then in 1954 Mao himself until Mao's death in 1976. Much of the text discusses the difficulties and frustrations faced by Li attempting to deal with the politics, infighting and personal conflicts of the upper echelons of the Chinese Communist Party, as well as the difficulties dealing with both Mao as a patient and other high-ranking officials, such as Mao's wife, the hypochondriac Jiang Qing, Mao's complaining daughter Li Na, and Lin Biao, whom the book says was mentally unstable.

The book also discusses the political climate and events of China in the same period. These include Mao's role in orchestrating events such as the Great Leap Forward, the Cultural Revolution, and various purges of members of the Communist Party. A significant portion of the narrative involves treatment of Mao's physical and mental health complaints and Li's personal assessments of how Mao handled the personalities and disputes of the party members that surrounded him. Li also details his disgust and frustrations towards the sycophancy and opportunism of high-ranking officials, such as Zhou Enlai, Deng Yingchao, Yang Shangkun, Lin Biao, Chen Boda, and Zhang Yufeng in carrying out Mao and Jiang Qing's orders against their better judgement, and the effect their actions had on Li's ability to provide medical treatment for Mao. He does however have praise for Wang Dongxing, Luo Ruiqing, Hua Guofeng, Marshals Ye Jianying and Peng Dehuai as the few honest individuals within the system who were willing to Challenge Mao, albeit with varying degrees of success.

A significant theme in the book is Li's gradual transition from his initial sincere admiration for Mao as a leader of the country to his eventual disgust, contempt, and personal dislike of the leader due to Mao's manipulation of people and events, odd sexual habits, abuses of power, substitution of slogans, and cult of personality for knowledge of modern science or administrative ability, and above all Mao's indifference to the suffering of the general population due to his failed policies. Throughout the book, Li compares Mao to the historical Chinese Emperors in the tactics he used to control people around him, noting Mao's frequent references to and reading of the histories of Imperial China.

Reception

Media reaction

The book was reviewed by The New York Times , which described it as "an extraordinarily intimate portrait" containing many details about Mao's time of rule and associations with other major figures in the government, but one that presented few new revelations about the political or diplomatic history of Maoist China. The review stated that though there may never be absolute corroboration of the book and its many anecdotes, its contents are supported by the numerous pictures of Li with Mao on his many trips, as well as the consistency of the details with the information known by specialists of Chinese history and politics. The book also highlighted the hypocritical, often decadent lifestyle Mao experienced, while enforcing strict political and secular restrictions, as well as harmful ideological changes on the population. [7]

The book was also reviewed by the Council on Foreign Relations magazine Foreign Affairs . Criticized for being based on Li's memory and a recreation of his journals in 1977 (the originals were destroyed during the Cultural Revolution out of fear for their possible impact on Li or his family), the review stated that despite this weakness there is "no obvious reason to doubt that Dr. Li is genuine and that his book represents a reasonable effort to record his experiences" and its credibility was enhanced for being edited and reviewed by scholars of Chinese history. The book was praised for probably being the best, or only source for information about larger Chinese political events, disputes within the Chinese high command, and Mao's private life and character. The review highlighted criticisms of Mao's indifference and lack of awareness of the general suffering within the general population of the country, his sexual excesses and intolerance to criticism or challenge, while cautioning against using the personal details of the book to draw general lessons on the nation and revolution. [8]

Writing for The Christian Science Monitor , reviewer Ann Tyson described Li's role as trapped dealing with a man he learned to despise, sacrificing his family life, professional goals, and personal convictions. Tyson also pointed out the threats made by Chinese authorities to confiscate his house upon learning he was writing a memoir, following through with their threat in 1992. [9]

Reviewing the book for the Daily News of Bowling Green, Kentucky, historian Robert Antony described it as an "intimate, candid account of one of the most powerful men in the modern world" and "a haunting tale of intrigue and debauchery in the court of Mao Zedong, as could only be told by a member of the inner circle" and described Li's journey from an idealized patriot who idolized Mao, to a critic disillusioned by Mao's hypocrisy and philandering. [10]

In 2009 Wasafiri magazine included The Private Life of Chairman Mao on its list of 25 Most Influential Books published in the previous quarter-century. [11]

Academic reactions

Positive

According to Lorenz M. Lüthi, The Private Life of Chairman Mao "turned out to be a relatively reliable source" that he could verify through comparisons with other documents. [12] Historian Frank Dikötter, wrote in his book, Mao's Great Famine , that Li is "a very reliable guide whose recollections can be verified, sometimes almost verbatim, in the party archives", although he notes that he has also been much maligned by some sinologists. [13]

Negative

Several people have questioned the authenticity of the book. Li's memoirs were not based on original records or personal diaries. During the Cultural Revolution, he burnt all of his original diaries and, as such, the book was based on restructured memories which might be wrong or fallible as Li's collaborator, Anne Thurston, admitted. [14] Historian Frederick Teiwes accused Li of being "anti-Mao". [15] According to Tai Hung-chao, who was the translator of the book, Random House, the company which published the book, wanted to add more "juicy bits" to the book such as Mao's sex life in order to attract a larger readership. [15] Li disagreed with this line of approach, but eventually gave in to it. [15] A statement protesting that many of the claims made in Li's book were false was issued soon after its publication, signed by 150 people who had personally known or worked with Mao, including Wang Dongxing, Li Yinqiao and Ye Zilong. [16]

Inconsistencies between Chinese and English versions

Li, in one of his letters which appeared posthumously (1996), admitted that the Chinese edition of the book was not his original Chinese version but a translation from English and that substantial parts of the original Chinese manuscript were cut by the editor, Anne Thurston. [15] Historian Mobo Gao wonders to what extent the English version of the book was written by Li himself. [17] In the Chinese version, claims such as that the memoirs were based on Li's diaries, that Li was the best doctor in China, and that Li could recall Mao's words verbatim are absent. [18] Absent in the Chinese version are also claims about Mao's womanizing behaviour spreading venereal disease, statements like "I [Mao] wash myself inside the bodies of my women" or Mao was "devoid of human feelings", [18] as well as some of Thurston's notes. [18] Gao notes that such omissions are an indication that these outrageous claims would've been appealing to Western readers, however they couldn't be included in the Chinese version because they would've been seen as obviously false to Chinese insiders. [18] Other outrageous claims, such as "Deng Xiaoping made a nurse pregnant and the nurse was forced to have an abortion", were omitted for political reasons and also because the publisher knew that the Chinese readers couldn't be fooled so easily with such an unsubstantiated claim. [18]

Lin, Xu and Wu rebuttal

In 1995, a Chinese language book was published in Hong Kong, entitled Lishi de Zhenshi: Mao Zedong Shenbian Gongzuo Renyuan de Zhengyan (meaning The Truth of History: Testimony of the personnel who had worked with Mao Zedong). It was written by three people who had known Mao personally: his personal secretary Lin Ke, his personal doctor from 1953 to 1957, Xu Tao and his chief nurse from 1953 to 1974, Wu Xujun. They argued that Li did not only not know Mao very well, but that he presented an inaccurate picture of him in his book. [19] The trio disproved Li's claim that he had been Mao's personal physician in 1954, by presenting copies of a document from Mao's medical record showing that Li only took on the responsibility for caring for Mao on 3 June 1957. Wu goes on to argue that whilst much of Li's memoir is devoted to talking about Mao in the period between 1954 and 1957, Li was not his general practitioner during this period, and therefore would not have had access to the personal information that he claimed. [20] Lin, Xu and Wu also criticise a number of Li's other claims as being impossible. For instance, whilst Li claimed that he was present at exclusive meetings for high-ranking Communist Party members such as the CCP Politburo Standing Committee meetings, Lin et al. argued that it would have been an extreme breach of protocol for him to be allowed into these events, though it is difficult to conclude that this would have been impossible. [21] In one particular case, Li claimed to have witnessed a public argument between Mao and Deng Xiaoping at the 8th National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party in September 1956, with the latter criticizing the use of personality cult centered around Mao in China, which Li alleged Mao favored. Lin et al. argue, however, that Mao himself had publicly criticized the personality cult in April 1956, when he stated that it was a lesson to be learned from the regime of Joseph Stalin in the Soviet Union. Lin et al. therefore believe that the debate between Mao and Deng that Li was referring to simply never happened, though not everyone would draw the same conclusion. [22]

They also criticise some of Li's claims regarding Mao's personal life, for instance challenging his assertion that Mao was sterile, in which they are supported by Professor Wu Jieping, who was another of Mao's medical care-givers. They theorise that Li had fabricated this story in order to explain why Mao did not have many illegitimate children with the many women that, Li controversially claimed, he had sexual intercourse with. [23]

Other critics

Another Chinese critic of Li's work was Qi Benyu, who was formerly a member of the Cultural Revolution radicals in Beijing. Qi had been arrested and imprisoned at Mao's order in 1968, subsequently spending the next eighteen years in prison. Despite his persecution at the hand of Mao however, Qi criticised Li's portrayal of the Chinese leader, claiming that "aside from his account of the support-the-left activities (zhi zuo) in which he [Li] personally participated, most of the Cultural Revolution part of his memoirs consists of stuff gleaned from newspapers, journals and other people's writings. To make Western readers believe that he had access to core secrets, Li fabricated scenarios, resulting in countless errors in his memoirs." [24] Having lived in proximity to Mao for a number of years, Qi remarked that during this time he heard no rumour of Mao ever having extra-marital affairs despite the fact that other senior Party members were known to, and that Mao was always respectful towards "female comrades". Due to this and other reasons, Qi believed Li's claim that Mao had affairs was a lie. [25]

Frederick Teiwes, an American academic specializing in the study of Maoist China, was also critical of The Private Life of Chairman Mao, arguing in his book The Tragedy of Lin Biao: Riding the Tiger during the Cultural Revolution 1966-1971 (1996) that despite Li's extensive claims regarding the politics behind the Cultural Revolution, he was actually "on the fringe" of the events taking place in the Chinese government. He went on to criticise the book as being overtly and polemically "anti-Mao", being "uncritical" in its outlook and being "dependent on the official sources" to create a picture of the revolution. He characterised Li's book as offering nothing new but "recycling widely available information and interpretations". [26]

The Private Life of Chairman Mao was presented as revealing new information about Mao, but historian Mobo Gao has argued, "For those who are familiar with the literature in Chinese, there was in fact very little that was really new in the book when it hit the Western market. For the significant figures and events described in Li's book, memoirs and biographies published previously in China and Hong Kong have revealed as much, if not more." [1]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Jiang Qing</span> Chinese political figure and wife of Mao Zedong (1914–1991)

Jiang Qing, also known as Madame Mao, was a Chinese communist revolutionary, actress, and major political figure during the Cultural Revolution (1966–1976). She was the fourth wife of Mao Zedong, the Chairman of the Communist Party and Paramount leader of China. She used the stage name Lan Ping (藍蘋) during her acting career, and was known by many other names. Jiang was best known for playing a major role in the Cultural Revolution and for forming the radical political alliance known as the Gang of Four.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Peng Dehuai</span> Chinese politician and general (1898–1974)

Peng Dehuai was a Marshal of the People's Republic of China, and the country's Minister of National Defense from 1954 to 1959. Peng was born into a poor peasant family, and received several years of primary education before his family's poverty forced him to suspend his education at the age of ten, and to work for several years as a manual laborer. When he was sixteen, Peng became a professional soldier. Over the next ten years Peng served in the armies of several Hunan-based warlord armies, raising himself from the rank of private second class to major. In 1926, Peng's forces joined the Kuomintang, and Peng was first introduced to communism. Peng participated in the Northern Expedition, and supported Wang Jingwei's attempt to form a left-leaning Kuomintang government based in Wuhan. After Wang was defeated, Peng briefly rejoined Chiang Kai-shek's forces before joining the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), allying himself with Mao Zedong and Zhu De.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Yang Shangkun</span> Former President of the Peoples Republic of China

Yang Shangkun was a Chinese Communist military and political leader, president of the People's Republic of China from 1988 to 1993, and one of the Eight Elders that dominated the party after the death of Mao Zedong.

Generations of Chinese leadership is a term historians use to characterize distinct periods of the leadership of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and, by extension, successive changes in the ideology of the CCP. Historians have studied various periods in the development of the government of the People's Republic of China (PRC) by reference to these "generations".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kang Sheng</span> Chinese politician (1898–1975)

Kang Sheng was a Chinese Communist Party (CCP) official, best known for having overseen the work of the CCP's internal security and intelligence apparatus during the early 1940s and again at the height of the Cultural Revolution in the late 1960s and early 1970s. A member of the CCP from the early 1920s, he spent time in Moscow during the early 1930s, where he learned the methods of the Soviet NKVD and became a supporter of Wang Ming for leadership of the CCP. After returning to China in the late 1930s, Kang Sheng switched his allegiance to Mao Zedong and became a close associate of Mao during the Second Sino-Japanese War, the Chinese Civil War, and after. He remained at or near the pinnacle of power in the People's Republic of China from its establishment in 1949 until his death in 1975. After the death of Mao and the subsequent arrest of the Gang of Four, Kang Sheng was accused of sharing responsibility with the Gang for the excesses of the Cultural Revolution and in 1980 he was expelled posthumously from the CCP.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gao Gang</span> Chinese politician (1905–1954)

Gao Gang was a Chinese Communist Party (CCP) leader during the Chinese Civil War and the early years of the People's Republic of China (PRC) before he became the victim of the first major purge within the party since before 1949. The events surrounding Gao's purge, the so-called "Gao Gang Affair", are still the subject of debate: a limited amount of research has been done on the topic, partly because of the relatively small amount of information available.

Li Zhisui was a Chinese American physician and Mao Zedong's personal doctor and confidant. He was born in Beijing, Republican China in 1919. He studied medicine during World War II at the Medical School of West China Union University. After emigrating to the United States, he wrote a biography of Mao entitled The Private Life of Chairman Mao, in which he described Mao as selfish, cruel, having a craving for young women, and poor personal hygiene. The biography was based on his recollection of journals he had kept, and later found expedient to destroy, while a doctor to Mao.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tao Zhu</span>

Tao Zhu was a member of the Politburo Standing Committee of the Chinese Communist Party.

Mao Yuanxin, also known as Li Shi, is a former Chinese politician. As the nephew of Chairman Mao Zedong, he acted as the liaison between Mao and the Communist Party's Central Committee in Mao's ailing years, when he was no longer able to regularly attend political functions. He was considered an ally to the radical political faction known as the Gang of Four. He was arrested soon after Mao's death after a political struggle ensued, and was sentenced to prison.

The 8th Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party was in session from 1956 to 1969. It was preceded by the 7th Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party. It held 12 plenary sessions in this period of 13 years. It was the longest serving central committee ever held by the Communist Party.

The 7th Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party was in session from 1945 to 1956. It was a product of the convening of the 7th National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party. It held six plenary sessions in this 11-year period. It began in June 1945, before the end of the Second Sino-Japanese War, and the resumption of the Chinese Civil War. This committee would be succeeded by the 8th Central Committee.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nelson Fu</span>

Nelson Fu or Fu Lianzhang was a Chinese medical doctor. He was one of the few Western-trained medical doctors to have made the Long March and later, in Beijing, a Vice-Minister of Public Health, to be responsible for the health of the Communist Party elite. In 1955, he was awarded the rank of lieutenant general of the People's Liberation Army.

The Central Case Examination Group was a special organization established in the People's Republic of China in 1966 under the aegis of the Politburo Standing Committee of the Chinese Communist Party to persecute those accused of "anti-party activities". It was, in essence, an organization dedicated to political persecution of senior party leaders as well as ordinary functionaries. Initially conceptualized as a beachhead by Chairman Mao Zedong's most radical supporters to 'gather dirt' on opponents of the Cultural Revolution, it later began taking up cases against all manner of perceived political opponents irrespective of their ideological allegiance. Many of its early leaders, such as Jiang Qing, later themselves became the subject of persecution by the Group. The Group was compared by Cultural Revolution-era propagandist Wang Li to the Soviet Cheka, but he noted that the CCEG had even broader powers. Its leading members included nearly all of the members of the Cultural Revolution Group (CRG) as well as Premier Zhou Enlai and the chief of Mao's security detail Wang Dongxing. The CCEG worked closely with the CRG during its investigations.

Wu De, born Li Chunhua (李春华), was a Chinese Communist revolutionary and politician of the People's Republic of China. He served in provincial-level leadership positions in Pingyuan Province, Tianjin municipality, Jilin Province, and Beijing municipality, and was a member of the Politburo of the Chinese Communist Party from 1973 to 1980. After the Cultural Revolution, Wu was a key supporter of Hua Guofeng and was forced out of politics after Deng Xiaoping ousted Hua from his leadership position.

Qi Benyu was a Chinese Communist theorist, mainly active during the Cultural Revolution. Qi was a member of the ultra-left Cultural Revolution Group, director of the Department of Petitions and deputy director of the Secretary Bureau of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party. Qi also acted as head of the history department of the communist theory journal Red Flag. In 1968 he was arrested, stripped of all his positions, and sent to prison.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lin Boqu</span> Chinese politician and poet

Lin Boqu was a Chinese politician and poet. An early supporter of Sun Yat-sen and member of the Tongmenghui, as well as a later participant in the Nanchang Uprising and the Long March, Lin came to be seen as one of the elder statesmen of the Chinese Communist Party.

Decisive Engagement: The Liaoxi-Shenyang Campaign is a 1991 Chinese epic war film directed by Li Jun, Yang Guangyuan, Wei Lian, Cai Jiwei, Zhao Jilie, Zhai Junjie and Jing Mukui, written by Li Pingfen, Shi Chao and Wang Jun, and starring Gu Yue, Su Lin, Ma Shaoxin, Lu Jixian, Zhao Hengduo, and Wu Zhiyuan. The film premiered in China on January 1, 1992. The film is about the Liaoshen Campaign of the Chinese Civil War.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mao Zedong's cult of personality</span> State-sponsored veneration of Mao Zedong

Mao Zedong's cult of personality was a prominent part of Chairman Mao Zedong's rule over the People's Republic of China from the state's founding in 1949 until his death in 1976. Mass media, propaganda and a series of other techniques were used by the state to elevate Mao Zedong's status to that of an infallible heroic leader, who could stand up against the West, and guide China to become a beacon of communism.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Proclamation of the People's Republic of China</span> Declaration for formation of the Peoples Republic of China

The proclamation of the People's Republic of China was made by Mao Zedong, the Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), on October 1, 1949, in Tiananmen Square in Beijing. The government of a new state under the CCP, formally called the Central People's Government, was proclaimed by Mao at the ceremony, which marked the foundation of the People's Republic of China.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Wu Xiuquan</span> Chinese military officer and diplomat (1908–1997)

Wu Xiuquan was a Chinese Communist revolutionary, military officer, and diplomat. He studied in the Soviet Union, enlisted in the Chinese Red Army, and participated in the Long March. After the founding of the People's Republic of China, he served as Vice Minister of Foreign Affairs, China's first ambassador to Yugoslavia, and Vice Minister of the International Liaison Department of the Communist Party of China. After being imprisoned for eight years during the Cultural Revolution, Wu was appointed Deputy Chief of the People's Liberation Army General Staff Department in 1975 and later served as vice president of the special court that tried and convicted the Gang of Four and the Lin Biao clique of numerous crimes during the Cultural Revolution.

References

Footnotes

  1. 1 2 Gao 2008, p. 99, Chapter 6. How a Medical Doctor Doctors History: A Case Study of Li Zhisui.
  2. ↑ Foster, Peter (20 May 2009). Gallagher, Tony (ed.). "East is Red is the siren song of China's new generation". The Daily Telegraph . London, United Kingdom of Great Britain. ISSN   0307-1235. OCLC   49632006. Archived from the original on 12 May 2009. Retrieved 18 August 2021.
  3. ↑ Gao 2008, p. 103, Chapter 6. How a Medical Doctor Doctors History: A Case Study of Li Zhisui.
  4. ↑ Tai 2000.
  5. 1 2 Li 1996.
  6. ↑ Gao 2008, p. 102, Chapter 6. How a Medical Doctor Doctors History: A Case Study of Li Zhisui.
  7. ↑ Bernstein, Richard (2 October 1994). Sulzberger Sr., Arthur Ochs (ed.). "The tyrant Mao, as told by his doctor". International section. The New York Times . Vol. CXXXIII, no. 86. New York City, New York, United States of America. p. A1. ISSN   0362-4331. OCLC   1645522. Archived from the original on 3 July 2009. Retrieved 18 August 2021.
  8. ↑ Wills Jr., John E. (15 December 1994). "Review: The Emperor Has No Clothes: Mao's Doctor Reveals the Naked Truth". Foreign Affairs . 73 (6). New York City, New York, United States of America: Council on Foreign Relations (CFR): 150–154. doi:10.2307/20046935. JSTOR   20046935. Archived from the original on 8 March 2021. Retrieved 18 August 2021.
  9. ↑ Tyson, Ann Scott (23 November 1994). "After 22 years, Li finally speaks out". The Christian Science Monitor . Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America: Christian Science Publishing Society. ISSN   0882-7729. Archived from the original on 18 October 2012. Retrieved 18 August 2021.
  10. ↑ Robert, Antony (29 January 1995). Gaines, John; Gaines, Pipes; Van Patten, Mark; Stringer, Don; Theis, Charlie; Simpson, Larry (eds.). "Li gives haunting view of Mao". Books of notes. The Daily News (Kentucky) . Vol. 141, no. 25. Bowling Green, Kentucky, United States of America: News Publishing Co. (Gaines family). Associated Press. pp. 5, 10C. Retrieved 18 August 2021– via Google Newspapers.
  11. ↑ McIntosh, Malachi (19 January 2009). McIntosh, Malachi; Mercer, Emily; Powles, Nina Mingya; Stadtler, Florian (eds.). "Twenty-five most influential books". Wasafiri. London, United Kingdom of Great Britain: Wasafiri Ltd/School of English and Drama, Queen Mary University of London. Retrieved 18 August 2021.
  12. ↑ Luthi, Lorenz M. (2008). The Sino-Soviet split : Cold War in the communist world. Princeton: Princeton University Press. p. 354. ISBN   978-0691135908.
  13. ↑ Dikötter, Frank (2010). Mao's Great Famine. New York: Walker & Co. ISBN   978-0-8027-7768-3. OCLC   555656528.
  14. ↑ Gao 2008, p. 100.
  15. 1 2 3 4 Gao 2008, p. 101.
  16. ↑ DeBorja & Dong 1996, p. 4.
  17. ↑ Gao 2008, p. 101–102.
  18. 1 2 3 4 5 Gao 2008, p. 102.
  19. ↑ Choi, WK (1 April 2009). Laibman, David; Munro, Kirstin (eds.). "Book reviews: Mao's last revolution". Science & Society . 73 (2). New York City, New York, United States of America: Guilford Press: 261–263. doi:10.1521/siso.2009.73.2.261. ISSN   0015-7120. JSTOR   00368237. LCCN   40010163. OCLC   900989752 . Retrieved 18 August 2021.
  20. ↑ Lin, Xu and Wu 1995. p. 150.
  21. ↑ Lin, Xu and Wu 1995.
  22. ↑ Lin, Xu and Wu 1995. p. 48
  23. ↑ Lin, Xu and Wu 1995. p. 104.
  24. ↑ Qi 1996. p. 187.
  25. ↑ Qi 1996. p. 195.
  26. ↑ Teiwes 1996. p. 179–180.

Bibliography

Books

Articles

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.