The Velvikudi inscription is an 8th-century bilingual copper-plate grant from the Pandya kingdom of southern India. Inscribed in Tamil and Sanskrit languages, it records the renewal of a grant of the Velvikudi village to a brahmana by the Pandya king Nedunjadaiyan Varaguna-varman I alias Jatila Parantaka (r. c. 768—815 CE) in c. 769-770 CE.
The grant was made in the third regnal year of the king Nedunjadaiyan (also transliterated as Neduncheliyan), [1] whose reign is dated to c. 765–815 CE. [2] The grant recorded in the inscription was probably made in 769-770 CE, but there is some controversy about its actual date. [3]
The inscription consists of the Sanskrit language portions inscribed in the Grantha script (lines 1-30 and 142-150), and the Tamil language inscribed in the Vatteluttu script (lines 31-141 and 151-155). The Tamil portion also uses the Grantha script for words of Sanskrit origin, the spelling of these words is sometimes influenced by the rules of Tamil orthography. The sequential numbers on the copper plates are inscribed in the Grantha script. [4]
The Sanskrit portion was composed by Varodayabhatta, who is described as "a performer of all sacrifices" (Sarvakratuyajin). [5] The Tamil portion was composed by Senapati Enadi, alias Chattan Chattan. [6]
The inscription includes the Praśasti (eulogy) portions written in both Sanskrit and Tamil. [7] In the earlier inscriptions from the Tamil-speaking region, issued by the Pallavas, the Praśasti portion is written only in Sanskrit, while the use of Tamil is restricted to the transactional portions. The later inscriptions, issued by the Cholas, also follow the Pallava model. The Velvikudi inscription is the earliest extant inscription that features Praśasti portions written in both Sanskrit and Tamil, a model also followed in other Pandya inscriptions, such as the Larger Chinnamanur (Sinnamanur) inscription and the Dhalavaipuram (Dalavayapuram) inscription. [8] This appears to be the result of the Pandya attempts to raise the status of the Tamil language. [9]
H. Krishna Sastri, who first edited and translated the inscription, suggested that the Sanskrit part may have been added later to give the inscription a "dignified appearance". [8] [10] However, this is unlikely, because similar Sanskrit portions also appear in other near-contemporary Pandya inscriptions. Moreover, the Tamil text of the Velvikudi inscription does not start on a new copper plate, but in the middle of the reverse of the third copper plate. The Sanskrit text that appears at the end of the inscription begins on the reverse of the ninth copper plate, but it is followed by Tamil text starting in the middle of the last copper plate. [8]
The inscription begins with a Sanskrit portion that invokes the God Shiva, and describes the mythical lineage of the Pandya kings, naming the sage Agastya as their family priest. It also gives the following account of the dynasty's origin: [11]
At the end of the previous kalpa (age), a king named Pandya ruled the coastal region. At the beginning of the present kalpa, this king was reborn as Budha, the son of the Moon. [10] Budha's son Pururavas introduced the dynasty's emblem - a pair of fish, and shared his throne and taxes with Indra. [12] Pururavas' descendant Maravarman was a patron of the learned, who conquered several enemies and gave away heaps of gold. [11]
Maravarman's son Ranadhira was an able ruler like his ancestors, and Ranadhira's son Maravarman (II) alias Rajasimha was a powerful, prosperous, truthful and learned ruler. The enemy king Pallavamalla ran away from the battlefield when faced with Rajasimha, wondering if the Pandya king was Shiva, Vishnu, or Indra. [11] Rajasimha generously distributed his wealth among the brahmanas, beggars and temples. He married the daughter of the Malava king, and their son was the next ruler, Jatila. [11] (Sastri identified Malava with modern Mala-nadu. [13] ) Jatila alias Parantaka was almost equal to Skanda, the son of Shiva. [11]
The Tamil portion begins with the description of a past event, and goes on to describe the achievements of the issuer king's ancestors:
Narkorran (Tamil Lexicon: Naṟkoṟṟan), a brahmana and a headman of Korkai, completed a Vedic sacrifice at Velvikudi (Vēḷvikkuṭi), with support of the Pandya king Palyaga Mudukudimi Peurvaluti (Palyāka Mutukuṭumi Peruvaḻuti). [10] The inscription defines the boundaries of the Velvikudi village with reference to landmarks such as vegetation, ponds, mounds, and other villages such as Payal and Kulandai; [14] however, the modern identity of Velvikudi is uncertain. [13] Both Korkai and Velvikudi were located in a subdivision called Paganur-kurram, which had fertile agricultural fields. [14] Based on a petition from the brahmanas of the Paganur-kurram, the king granted the village to Narkorran. [10] [14]
Subsequently, a Kali king named Kalabhran (identified with the Kalabhras) conquered the whole Pandya country, including Velvikudi. After some time, the Pandya king Kadungon recaptured his ancestral territory from the enemies. Kadungon's son was Avani Sulamani Maravarman, whose son was Seliyan Vanavan Sendan. [10]
The next king in the line, Arikesari Asamasaman Maravarman, won a battle at Pali by driving into a herd of war elephants; defeated the ocean-like army of Vilveli at Nelveli; destroyed the Paravar who did not seek refuge with him; annihilated the race of the people of Kurunadu; won a battle at Sennilam by driving into a herd of war elephants; defeated the king of Kerala several times at the strongly-fortified town of Puliyur; performed hiranyagarbha and tulabhara gift-giving ceremonies; and protected the brahmanas and the infirm. [15]
Seliyan Sendan's son Sadaiyan (Caṭaiyaṉ), the lord of Konga, bore the titles Tenna-Vanavan, Sembiyan, Solan and Madura-Karunatakan. [10] Sadaiyan won a battle at Marudur; defeated Ayavel in the battles at Sengodi and Pudankodu; and destroyed the maharathis at Mangalapuram. He stamped the symbols of bow, tiger and fish on Mount Meru [15] (these are the symbols of the Chera, Chola and Pandya countries; thus, the inscription suggests that he held supreme authority over the Chera, Chola and Pandya territories). [16]
Sadaiyan's son Ter-Maran defeated the enemies at Neduvayal, Kurumadai, Manni-Kurichchi, Tirumangai, Puvalur, and Kodumbalur. He defeated the Pallava king at Kulumbur, capturing the enemy's elephants and horses. He defeated his enemies at Periyalur, crossed the Kaviri (Kaveri River), and subdued the Mala-Kongam country. He reached Pandi-Kodumudi, and worshipped Pashupati (Shiva). He established a marital alliance with the Gangaraja. [16] He performed the gift-giving ceremonies gosahasra (gift of cows), hiranyagarbha, and tulabhara. He relieved the distress of those who studied the Vedas, and repaired the fortifications at Kudal, Vanji and Kozhi. [15]
Ter Maran's son Parantaka Nedunjadaiyan (the issuer king, also known as Jatila Parantaka) was a respected, merciful and militarily powerful king, who loved the learned people ( pandita-vatsala), and equalled Manu. He was like death to his enemies (parantaka), like Partha in wielding the bow, like Kinnara in music. [15] He defeated the Kadava ruler at Pennagadam, forcing the enemy king to flee to the forest. He also won a battle against the Ay Vel chieftain. [16]
The Velvikudi inscription provides the earliest extant reference to the establishment of a Brahmadeya (land grant to a brahmana) in the Tamil-speaking region. [17] It records Nedunjadaiyan's renewal of a grant made by his purported ancestor, the ancient Pandya king Palyaga Mudukudimi Peurvaluti. [17] [18]
The inscription states that during the third year of Nedunjadaiyan's reign, a man arrived at the Pandya capital Kudal (Kūṭal or Madurai), and complained that Velvikudi had not been returned to Narkorran's descendants after the end of the Kalabhra interregnum. The king asked the complainant to prove the antiquity of the grant, which the complainant did. The king then granted the Velvikudi village to Kamakkani Narchingan (Kāmakaṇi Naṟchiṅgaṉ) alias Suvaran Singan, the headman of Korkai. [16] The headman kept the one-third of the village for himself, and distributed the remaining part among fifty other brahmanas. [19]
The Sanskrit portion at the end names Mangalaraja Madhuratara of Karavandapura as the executor (ajnapti) of the grant. [14] It describes him as a vaidyaka , a master of the shastras, a poet and an orator. This portion ends with four Vaishnavite imprecatory verses (cursing those who violate the grant deed). [16]
The Tamil portion at the end states that the inscription was engraved by the order of the king himself, and names the engraver as Yuddhakesari (or Chuttakesari) Perumbanaikkaran. [16] [14] The engraver was allotted a house site, a wet field and a dry field. [20]
Ignoring the mythical kings, the Sanskrit portion of the Velvikudi inscription mentions three immediate predecessors of the current king Jatila Parantaka (four generations in total). The subsequent Tamil portion mentions six such ancestors (seven generations in total), ignoring the legendary Palyāka Mutukuṭumi Peruvaḻuti. These numbers appear to have been determined by convention: the other near-contemporary inscriptions from the region variously name either four or seven generations of kings. [21]
| Madras Museum Plates | Velvikudi Grant | Smaller Sinnamanur Plates | Larger Sinnamanur Plates | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Sanskrit portion | Tamil portion | ||||
| Kadungon | |||||
| Maravarman Avanisulamani | |||||
| Seliyan Sendan (or Sendan) | Jayantavarman | ||||
| Maravarman | Arikesari Maravarman | Arikesari Maravarman | Arikesari Parankusa | ||
| Ranadhira | Ko Chadaiyan | Jatila | |||
| Maravarman Pallavabhanjana | Maravarman Rajasimha I | Ter Maran (or Maran) | Rajasimha | ||
| Jatilavarman Nedunjadaiyan | Jatila Parantaka | Nedunjadaiyan (=Maranjadaiyan, Anamalai Inscription) | Varaguna Maharaja (Varaguna I) | ||
| Srimara Srivallabha | |||||
| Varagunavarman II (Varaguna II) | Parantaka Viranarayana | ||||
| Maravarman Rajasimha II | |||||
The inscription presents the issuer king Nedunjadaiyan as a descendant of Palyāka Mutukuṭumi Peruvaḻuti, but this may be a false claim. [18]
The inscription is notable for being one of few early sources that mention the Kalabhras. [1]
The Pandyan dynasty, also referred to as the Pandyas of Madurai, was an ancient Tamil dynasty of South India, and among the three great kingdoms of Tamilakam, the other two being the Cholas and the Cheras. Existing since at least the 4th to 3rd centuries BCE, the dynasty passed through two periods of imperial dominance, the 6th to 10th centuries CE, and under the 'Later Pandyas'. Under Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan I and Maravarman Kulasekara Pandyan I, the Pandyas ruled extensive territories including regions of present-day South India and northern Sri Lanka through vassal states subject to Madurai.
The Pallava dynasty existed from 275 CE to 897 CE, ruling a significant portion of the Deccan, also known as Tondaimandalam. They patronized Tamil poets, built magnificent temples and monuments, and their inscriptions were mostly in Tamil. The Pallavas played a crucial role in shaping the Tamil culture and heritage of the region during their rule. The dynasty rose to prominence after the downfall of the Satavahana dynasty, with whom they had formerly served as feudatories.
Simhavishnu also known as Avanisimha son of Simhavarman III and one of the Pallava kings of India, was responsible for the revival of the Pallavan dynasty. He was the first Pallava monarch whose domain extended beyond Kanchipuram (Kanchi) in the South. He was portrayed as a great conqueror in Mattavilasa Prahasana, a drama written by his son Mahendravarman I.
Pandya Nadu or Pandi Nadu is a geographical region comprising the southern part of the present day state of Tamil Nadu. The region is bounded on its West by the Venad/Ay Nadu, Northeast by the Chola Nadu and Northwest by the Kongu Nadu. It comprises the present-day districts of Madurai, Theni, Sivaganga, Ramanathapuram, Virudhunagar, Tirunelveli, Tenkasi, Thoothukudi, Kanniyakumari, parts of Pudukkottai and Dindigul.
The Chera dynasty, IPA: [t͡ʃeːɾɐ], was a Sangam age dynasty who are credited as the Creators of land of Kerala as they have unified various regions of the western coast and western ghats to form the early Chera empire.
Pulakeshin II was the most famous ruler of the Chalukya dynasty of Vatapi. During his reign, the Chalukya kingdom expanded to cover most of the Deccan region in peninsular India.
Mahendravarman I was a Pallava emperor who ruled the Southern portion of present-day Andhra region and Northern regions of what forms present-day Tamil Nadu in India in the early 7th century. He was a scholar, painter, architect, musician. He was the son of Simhavishnu, who defeated the Kalabhras and re-established the Pallava kingdom.
Vijayalaya Chola was a descendant of the Early Cholas who founded the imperial Chola Empire. He ruled over the region to the north of the river Kaveri. Vijayalaya Chola is one of the descendants of famous Sangam age Chola king Karikala Chola. He was succeeded by his son Aditya Chola I, who laid the foundation of Imperial Chola Empire.
Parantaka Chola I was a Chola emperor who ruled for forty-eight years, annexing Pandya by defeating Rajasimhan II and in the Deccan won the Battle of Vallala against Rashtrakutas which happened before 916 CE. The best part of his reign was marked by increasing success and prosperity.
The Kalabhra dynasty, also called Kaḷabrar, Kaḷappirar, Kallupura or Kalvar, were rulers of all or parts of Tamil region sometime between the 3rd century and 6th century CE, after the ancient dynasties of the early Cholas, the early Pandyas and Chera. Information about the origin and reign of the Kalabhras is uncertain and scarce. It is believed by historians that the Kalabhras belonged to the community of warriors who were possibly once the feudatories of the Cholas and the Pallavas. Their proposed roots vary from southeast region of modern Karnataka, Kalappalars of Kaarkaathaar community, to Kalavar chieftains. This age is generally called "The Augustan age of Tamil Literature", in a 1922 book by the name "Studies in South Indian Jainism" written by M. S. Ramaswami Ayyangar and B. Seshagiri Rao. The Kalabhra era is sometimes referred to as the "dark period" of Tamil history, and information about it is generally inferred from any mentions in the literature and inscriptions that are dated many centuries after their era ended.
Vikramaditya I was the third son and followed his father, Pulakeshi II on to the Chalukya throne. He restored order in the fractured kingdom and made the Pallavas retreat from the capital Vatapi.
The region of Tamil Nadu in the southeast of modern India, shows evidence of having had continuous human habitation from 15,000 BCE to 10,000 BCE. Throughout its history, spanning the early Upper Paleolithic age to modern times, this region has coexisted with various external cultures.
Ay was one of the Tamil dynasties which controlled the south-western tip of the peninsula, from the early historic period up to the medieval period.The clan traditionally held sway over the harbour of Vizhinjam, the fertile region of Nanjinad, and southern parts of the spice-producing Western Ghat mountains. The dynasty was also known as Kupaka in medieval period.
Kadungon was a Pandya king who revived the Pandya rule in South India in the 6th century CE. Along with the Pallava king Simhavishnu, he is credited with ending the Kalabhra rule, marking the beginning of a new era in the Tamil speaking region.
Maravarman Rajasimha I, also known as Pallavabhanjana, was a Pandya king of early medieval south India. He was the son and successor of Ko Chadaiyan Ranadhira. He remembered for his important successes against the Pallavas and in the Kongu country.
Arikesari Maravarman, also known as Parankusa, was a Pandya king of early medieval south India.
Srimara Srivallabha was a Pandya king of early medieval south India.
Maravarman Avanisulamani was a Pandya ruler of early historic south India. He was the son and successor of Kadungon, who revived the Pandya dynastic power after the Kalabhra interregnum. Not much information is available about either of these kings.
Jayantavarman, known in Tamil as Seliyan Sendan, was a Pandya ruler of early historic south India. He is best known for extending the Pandya rule to the Chera country (Kerala). He was succeeded by his son Maravarman Arikesari Parankusan.
Kongu Chera dynasty, or Cheras of Kongu or Karur, or simply as the Chera dynasty, were a medieval royal lineage in south India, initially ruling over western Tamil Nadu and central Kerala. The headquarters of the Kongu Cheras was located at Karur in central Tamil Nadu. The Chera rulers of Kongu were subordinate to or conquered by Pallava, Pandya and Chola rulers are also said to have overrun the Kongu Chera country.
