Volcanic impacts on the oceans

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Explosive volcanic eruptions affect the global climate in several ways.

Contents

Lowering sea surface temperature

One main impact of volcanoes is the injection of sulfur-bearing gases into the stratosphere, which oxidize to form sulfate aerosols. Stratospheric sulfur aerosols spread around the globe by the atmospheric circulation, producing surface cooling by scattering solar radiation back to space. This cooling effect on the ocean surface usually lasts for several years as the lifetime of sulfate aerosols is about 2–3 years. [1] However, in the subsurface ocean the cooling signal may persist for a longer time and may have impacts on some decadal variabilities, such as the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation (AMOC). [1] [2]

Volcanic aerosols from huge volcanoes (VEI>=5) directly reduce global mean sea surface temperature (SST) by approximately 0.2-0.3 °C, [1] [3] milder than global total surface temperature drop, which is ~0.3 to 0.5 °C, [4] [5] [6] according to both global temperature records and model simulations. It usually takes several years to be back to normal.

Decreasing ocean heat content

HC change HadCM3 simulation.png

The volcanic cooling signals in ocean heat content can persist for much longer time (decadal or mutil-decadal time scale), far beyond the duration of volcanic forcing. [2] [7]

Several studies have revealed that Krakatau’s effect in the heat content can be as long as one-century. [7] [8] Relaxation time of the effects of recent volcanoes is generally shorter than those before the 1950s. For example, the recovery time of ocean heat content of Pinatubo, which caused comparable radiative forcing to Krakatau, seems to be much shorter. This is because Pinatubo happened under a warm and non-stationary background with increasing greenhouse gas forcing. [7] However, its signal still could penetrate down to ~1000 m deep. [1]

A 2022 study [9] on environmental impacts of volcanic eruptions showed that in the eastern equatorial of the pacific, after the volcano erupts, some low-latitude volcano trends to warmer. But some highlatitude volcanoes tend to be colder.

Altering sea level

As thermal expansion is a key factor in sea level variability, decreased heat content should result in a reduction in global mean sea level on a decadal time scale. [2] However, Grinsted [2007] argued that a significant sea level rise is the first direct response to the volcanic eruption, and after that sea level becomes to drop. One possible explanation for this phenomenon is the imbalance of ocean mass fluxes. After a volcanic eruption, evaporation over ocean will lower, because it is largely determined by the ocean surface temperature change. The quick response of evaporation to the surface cooling and the delayed response of river runoff to the associated lower precipitation lead to an increased sea level. About 1~2 years later, river discharge becomes less due to the reduced precipitation and less sea ice melting, which cause sea level to drop. [10]

Ocean oxygen and carbon levels

In 2023, several scientists studied the eruption of Mt Pinatubo in June 1991 and discovered that it led to increases in the ocean oxygen and carbon concentrations that persisted for many years. [11]

Enhancing AMOC

Results from a number of modeling studies suggest that the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) is enhanced by volcanic activity. [1] [12] [13] The deepwater formation at the northern end of the Atlantic Ocean allows SST anomalies to be subducted into the deep ocean efficiently because the rate of overturning is altered by changes in salinity. The decreasing summer-time ice melting and precipitation due to the volcano cooling enhance the salinity near the Greenland Sea, and further reduces static stability, which means more surface water sinks into the deep ocean. The studies of Stenchikov et al. (2009) and Iwi (2012) suggest that both Krakatau and Pinatubo may have strengthened the overturning circulation. And the increase in AMOC seems to be strongest at about one decade after the volcano eruption, with a magnitude of about one sverdrup for Krakatau and Pinatubo. [1] [13]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Satellite temperature measurement</span> Measurements of atmospheric, land surface or sea temperature by satellites.

Satellite temperature measurements are inferences of the temperature of the atmosphere at various altitudes as well as sea and land surface temperatures obtained from radiometric measurements by satellites. These measurements can be used to locate weather fronts, monitor the El Niño-Southern Oscillation, determine the strength of tropical cyclones, study urban heat islands and monitor the global climate. Wildfires, volcanos, and industrial hot spots can also be found via thermal imaging from weather satellites.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate variability and change</span> Change in the statistical distribution of climate elements for an extended period

Climate variability includes all the variations in the climate that last longer than individual weather events, whereas the term climate change only refers to those variations that persist for a longer period of time, typically decades or more. Climate change may refer to any time in Earth's history, but the term is now commonly used to describe contemporary climate change, often popularly referred to as global warming. Since the Industrial Revolution, the climate has increasingly been affected by human activities.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Stratovolcano</span> Type of conical volcano composed of layers of lava and tephra

A stratovolcano, also known as a composite volcano, is a conical volcano built up by many layers (strata) of hardened lava and tephra. Unlike shield volcanoes, stratovolcanoes are characterized by a steep profile with a summit crater and periodic intervals of explosive eruptions and effusive eruptions, although some have collapsed summit craters called calderas. The lava flowing from stratovolcanoes typically cools and hardens before spreading far, due to high viscosity. The magma forming this lava is often felsic, having high to intermediate levels of silica, with lesser amounts of less viscous mafic magma. Extensive felsic lava flows are uncommon, but have traveled as far as 15 km (9 mi).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Thermohaline circulation</span> Part of large-scale ocean circulation

Thermohaline circulation (THC) is a part of the large-scale ocean circulation that is driven by global density gradients created by surface heat and freshwater fluxes. The adjective thermohaline derives from thermo- referring to temperature and -haline referring to salt content, factors which together determine the density of sea water. Wind-driven surface currents travel polewards from the equatorial Atlantic Ocean, cooling en route, and eventually sinking at high latitudes. This dense water then flows into the ocean basins. While the bulk of it upwells in the Southern Ocean, the oldest waters upwell in the North Pacific. Extensive mixing therefore takes place between the ocean basins, reducing differences between them and making the Earth's oceans a global system. The water in these circuits transport both energy and mass around the globe. As such, the state of the circulation has a large impact on the climate of the Earth.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Volcanic winter</span> Temperature anomaly event caused by a volcanic eruption

A volcanic winter is a reduction in global temperatures caused by droplets of sulfuric acid obscuring the Sun and raising Earth's albedo (increasing the reflection of solar radiation) after a large, sulfur-rich, particularly explosive volcanic eruption. Climate effects are primarily dependent upon the amount of injection of SO2 and H2S into the stratosphere where they react with OH and H2O to form H2SO4 on a timescale of week, and the resulting H2SO4 aerosols produce the dominant radiative effect. Volcanic stratospheric aerosols cool the surface by reflecting solar radiation and warm the stratosphere by absorbing terrestrial radiation for several years. Moreover, the cooling trend can be further extended by atmosphere-ice-ocean feedback mechanisms. These feedbacks can continue to maintain the cool climate long after the volcanic aerosols have dissipated.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Global dimming</span> Reduction in the amount of sunlight reaching Earths surface

The first systematic measurements of global direct irradiance at the Earth's surface began in the 1950s. A decline in irradiance was soon observed, and it was given the name of global dimming. It continued from 1950s until 1980s, with an observed reduction of 4–5% per decade, even though solar activity did not vary more than the usual at the time. Global dimming has instead been attributed to an increase in atmospheric particulate matter, predominantly sulfate aerosols, as the result of rapidly growing air pollution due to post-war industrialization. After 1980s, global dimming started to reverse, alongside reductions in particulate emissions, in what has been described as global brightening, although this reversal is only considered "partial" for now. The reversal has also been globally uneven, as the dimming trend continued during the 1990s over some mostly developing countries like India, Zimbabwe, Chile and Venezuela. Over China, the dimming trend continued at a slower rate after 1990, and did not begin to reverse until around 2005.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Eruption column</span> A cloud of hot ash and volcanic gases emitted during an explosive volcanic eruption

An eruption column or eruption plume is a cloud of super-heated ash and tephra suspended in gases emitted during an explosive volcanic eruption. The volcanic materials form a vertical column or plume that may rise many kilometers into the air above the vent of the volcano. In the most explosive eruptions, the eruption column may rise over 40 km (25 mi), penetrating the stratosphere. Stratospheric injection of aerosols by volcanoes is a major cause of short-term climate change.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">El Chichón</span>

El Chichón, also known as Chichonal, is an active volcano in Francisco León, north-western Chiapas, Mexico. El Chichón is part of a geologic zone known as the Chiapanecan Volcanic Arc. El Chichón is a complex of domes with a tuff ring, made of ejected volcanic material, located between the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt and the Central America Volcanic Arc. El Chichón erupted in 1982; prior to this, activity had not occurred since c.1360, although debates in literature occur around an eruption occurring in c.1850.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Atlantic meridional overturning circulation</span> System of surface and deep currents in the Atlantic Ocean

The Atlantic meridional overturning circulation (AMOC) is part of a global thermohaline circulation in the oceans and is the zonally integrated component of surface and deep currents in the Atlantic Ocean. It is characterized by a northward flow of warm, salty water in the upper layers of the Atlantic, and a southward flow of colder, deep waters. These "limbs" are linked by regions of overturning in the Nordic and Labrador Seas and the Southern Ocean, although the extent of overturning in the Labrador Sea is disputed. The AMOC is an important component of the Earth's climate system, and is a result of both atmospheric and thermohaline drivers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate system</span> Interactions that create Earths climate and may result in climate change

Earth's climate system is a complex system with five interacting components: the atmosphere (air), the hydrosphere (water), the cryosphere, the lithosphere and the biosphere. Climate is the statistical characterization of the climate system, representing the average weather, typically over a period of 30 years, and is determined by a combination of processes in the climate system, such as ocean currents and wind patterns. Circulation in the atmosphere and oceans is primarily driven by solar radiation and transports heat from the tropical regions to regions that receive less energy from the Sun. The water cycle also moves energy throughout the climate system. In addition, different chemical elements, necessary for life, are constantly recycled between the different components.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Stratospheric aerosol injection</span> Putting particles in the stratosphere to reflect sunlight to limit global heating

Stratospheric aerosol injection is a proposed method of solar geoengineering to reduce global warming. This would introduce aerosols into the stratosphere to create a cooling effect via global dimming and increased albedo, which occurs naturally from volcanic winter. It appears that stratospheric aerosol injection, at a moderate intensity, could counter most changes to temperature and precipitation, take effect rapidly, have low direct implementation costs, and be reversible in its direct climatic effects. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change concludes that it "is the most-researched [solar geoengineering] method, with high agreement that it could limit warming to below 1.5 °C (2.7 °F)." However, like other solar geoengineering approaches, stratospheric aerosol injection would do so imperfectly and other effects are possible, particularly if used in a suboptimal manner.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">1815 eruption of Mount Tambora</span> Catastrophic volcanic eruption in present-day Indonesia

Mount Tambora is a volcano on the island of Sumbawa in present-day Indonesia, then part of the Dutch East Indies, and its 1815 eruption was the most powerful volcanic eruption in recorded human history. This volcanic explosivity index (VEI) 7 eruption ejected 37–45 km3 of dense-rock equivalent (DRE) material into the atmosphere, and was the most recent confirmed VEI-7 eruption.

Tectonic–climatic interaction is the interrelationship between tectonic processes and the climate system. The tectonic processes in question include orogenesis, volcanism, and erosion, while relevant climatic processes include atmospheric circulation, orographic lift, monsoon circulation and the rain shadow effect. As the geological record of past climate changes over millions of years is sparse and poorly resolved, many questions remain unresolved regarding the nature of tectonic-climate interaction, although it is an area of active research by geologists and palaeoclimatologists.

The Great Salinity Anomaly (GSA) originally referred to an event in the late 1960s to early 1970s where a large influx of freshwater from the Arctic Ocean led to a salinity anomaly in the northern North Atlantic Ocean, which affected the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation. Since then, the term "Great Salinity Anomaly" has been applied to successive occurrences of the same phenomenon, including the Great Salinity Anomaly of the 1980s and the Great Salinity Anomaly of the 1990s. The Great Salinity Anomalies were advective events, propagating to different sea basins and areas of the North Atlantic, and is on the decadal-scale for the anomalies in the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Global surface temperature</span> Average temperature of the Earths surface

In earth science, global surface temperature is calculated by averaging the temperatures over sea and land. Periods of global cooling and global warming have alternated throughout Earth's history.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cold blob</span> Cold temperature anomaly North Atlantic surface waters

The cold blob in the North Atlantic describes a cold temperature anomaly of ocean surface waters, affecting the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) which is part of the thermohaline circulation, possibly related to global warming-induced melting of the Greenland ice sheet.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">1257 Samalas eruption</span> Volcanic eruption in Indonesia

In 1257, a catastrophic eruption occurred at the Samalas volcano on the Indonesian island of Lombok. The event had a probable Volcanic Explosivity Index of 7, making it one of the largest volcanic eruptions during the Holocene epoch. It left behind a large caldera that contains Lake Segara Anak. Later volcanic activity created more volcanic centres in the caldera, including the Barujari cone, which remains active.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Little Ice Age volcanism</span> Massive volcanic activity during the Little Ice Age

Little Ice Age volcanism refers to the massive volcanic activities during the Little Ice Age. Scientists suggested a hypothesis that volcanism was the major driving force of the global cooling among the other natural factors, i.e. the sunspot activities by orbital forcing and greenhouse gas. The Past Global Change (PAGES), a registered paleo-science association for scientific research and networking on past global changes in the University of Bern, Switzerland, suggested that from 1630 to 1850, a total of 16 major eruptions and cooling events had taken place. When a volcano erupts, ashes burst out of the vent together with magma and forms a cloud in the atmosphere. The ashes act as an isolating layer that block out a proportion of solar radiation, causing global cooling. The global cooling effect impacts ocean currents, atmospheric circulation and cause social impacts such as drought and famine. Wars and rebellions were therefore triggered worldwide in the Little Ice Age. It was suggested that the crisis on Ottoman Empire and Ming-Qing Transition in China were typical examples that closely correlated with Little Ice Age.

The Atlantic meridional overturning circulation (AMOC) is a large system of ocean currents, like a conveyor belt. It is driven by differences in temperature and salt content and it is an important component of the climate system. However, the AMOC is not a static feature of global circulation. It is sensitive to changes in temperature, salinity and atmospheric forcings. Climate reconstructions from δ18O proxies from Greenland reveal an abrupt transition in global temperature about every 1470 years. These changes may be due to changes in ocean circulation, which suggests that there are two equilibria possible in the AMOC. Stommel made a two-box model in 1961 which showed two different states of the AMOC are possible on a single hemisphere. Stommel’s result with an ocean box model has initiated studies using three dimensional ocean circulation models, confirming the existence of multiple equilibria in the AMOC.

Georgiy L. Stenchikov is an applied mathematician and climate scientist focusing on studies of physical processes that govern the Earth's climate. He is a professor in the Department of Earth Science and Engineering at the King Abdullah University of Science and Technology in Saudi Arabia.

References

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