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Women in Nepal face high levels of gender discrimination. Although the constitution provides for the protection of women, including equal pay for equal work, the government has not taken significant action to implement its provisions.
One of the first forms of discrimination against women in Nepal began with the practice of Sati, which was eradicated by Rana Prime Minister Chandra Shamsher. However, remaining issues faced by women include gender based violence, child marriage, trafficking of women, transitional justice, unequal representation, and participation of women in decision making. [1]
In 2024, literacy rates in Nepal increased to 77.4%. The rate of literacy for females stood at 70.1%, which is lower than the male population's 85.8%. [2]
Females face gender-based violence and this greatly limits their ability to attend school or receive proper education. Furthermore, religion restricts the opportunities for women to receive education. For example, the majority of the female Muslim population in Nepal is still deprived of basic education, with only 20% having had any level of education. [3]
The percentage of women from rural areas who have never attended school is 51.1% (CBS, 2008), while the percentage of such women from urban areas is 25% (CBS, 2008). This is reflected in the disparity in literacy rates, between women in rural areas, 36.5%, and those in urban areas, 61.5%. Literacy rates in rural areas are almost half that in urban areas. Although overall female participation in the workforce has increased, the majority of employed women are still heavily concentrated in the low-wage and more labor-intensive industries. Formal sector female participation is 6%. According to the 2008 report from CBS, there were 155 000 male professionals, but only 48 000 female professionals, about 31% of female professionals. This is in stark contrast to female participation in the subsistence agricultural sector, with female participation almost 160% that of male participation. [4]
Due to the growing inequality and violence against women, free legal aid was made available by the government of Nepal through the enactment of Legal Aid Act 1997, though the majority target groups of women, children and disenfranchised are unable to access it. [5] Women's rights were only taken seriously once Nepal was under democratic rule post 1990, and a constitution was formed stating equality between men and women as a fundamental right. The newly elected democratic government ratified numerous laws and international treaties specific to women, and The Nepal Treaty Act 1990 ensured that international human rights provisions will be given preference in case of conflict with domestic laws. [6] The laws enforced in 1990 were only finally enacted in 2006, and since the 1990s, Public Interest Litigation (PIL) was one of the key tools used by women to voice their opinions and enactment of women's rights. [5]
The 1990s saw substantial changes in laws within Nepal, which facilitated the interest and formation of NGOs, both as recipients of these programs and as staff members of the NGOS. This began the movement of women empowerment and mobilization of women's NGOs. [7]
Due to ongoing violence and discrimination against women, United Nation's recommendations of the Working Group on the Universal Periodic Review to Government of Nepal, March 2011 included guaranteeing full right to equality and non-discrimination between men and women in line with the international standards (with that of Italy) [8] Furthermore, CEDAW Committee's Concluding Observations and Recommendations to Government of Nepal, August 2011 included introducing monitoring mechanisms for better implementation of laws and plans pertaining to equality and development of gender disparity indicators. [8]
Health services in Nepal are inadequate and insufficient and are thus reflected in the low health status of Nepalese in relation to the rest of the Southeast Asian region. The most common illnesses that females at reproductive age face are anemia and malnutrition, due to the discrimination faced in childhood and while growing up. As females, especially girls, are considered to be of the lowest status in the household, they are often the last to eat and thus do not receive the proper nutrition required. Almost 70% of females who have reached puberty suffer from these common illnesses. Also, many women often delay seeking medical help out of fear. [9]
The maternal mortality ratio in Nepal, stands at 380 maternal deaths per 100 000 live births in 2008, according to estimates by the WHO/UNICEF/UNFPA/The World Bank. Although there has been a significant decrease as compared to the ratio of 539 per 100 000 live births in 2003, the ratio is still one of the highest in the world. Because of the inadequate provision of healthcare for pregnant mothers, they are more susceptible to death during the course of pregnancy and during labor itself. According to the Nepal Demographic and Health Survey (NDHS) 2001, about 10% of all births are carried out in the presence of a qualified doctor or medical staff. [10] This reflects the prevalence of home births, around 81% of all births, in Nepalese society. Due to the cultural beliefs, women are generally reluctant to allow any outsiders to be present or attend to the birth. Geography has also greatly limited the availability of health services especially those in rural and mountainous regions. Even though there has been much road development in recent years, females are less impacted by it, as they remain infrequent road users. [4]
On September 23, 2021, a group of 20-25 youth staged a protest in Kathmandu to pressure the government to remove or reduce the current tax on feminine hygiene products. There is currently a 15% customs duty, 13% Value Added Tax (VAT), and an additional 1.5% VAT on customs duties that are charged while importing the products. Sanitary pads do not fall under the list of essential items—which includes medicines, medical supplies, contraceptives, and condoms—that are exempt from VAT. Feminine hygiene products are instead taxed as luxury items, making them unaffordable for many women in Nepal. [11]
Several laws have restricted Nepali women's right to travel and work abroad. In 2012 the government banned women under 30 from working in Gulf states, although the age threshold and geographical scope of the ban has changed. Meanwhile, Nepali women have been trafficked to other countries without much government intervention while the government restricts them from seeking employment abroad. [12]
Gender-based violence (GBV) towards women is a severe issue in Nepal where its women often find themselves susceptible to both public and domestic violence which constitutes rape, sexual abuse in the workplace and at home, and human trafficking. There is a persistence of harmful traditional practices deemed life-threatening such as Deuki (act of offering young girls to Hindu temples to live without proper care or education) and Chhaupadi (menstruating women are kept in a shed away from the home to live under harsh conditions). [13] Based on the study by United Nations Population Fund's (UNFPA) entitled Gender Equality and Empowerment of Women in Nepal, abused women are more inclined to suffer from depression, anxiety, psychosomatic symptoms, sexual dysfunction and various reproductive health problems. [14]
In the Nepal Human Rights Yearbook 2012 by Informal Sector Service Center (INSEC), a study of all 75 districts across the country returned results of 648 women as victims of violence in 2011. In addition, the number of girls under the age of 18 who were affected stands at 379. [15]
The proportion of Nepali women who have been subjected to domestic violence are estimated at 60 to 70 per cent. Gender-based violence is worse in rural communities where an estimated 81 per cent of women experience recurring domestic violence. This includes physical abuse by husbands, polygamy, dowry-related murders, and physical and psychological harassment by household members. In 2021, 2022 and 2023, Ruby Khan led a march from Nepalgunj to Kathmandu, followed by subsequent sit-in protests, to bring attention to the disappearance and murders of women in rural Banke District. [16]
Reasons for gender-based violence in Nepal are largely attributed to social taboos and superstitions associated with women and deeply entrenched beliefs that propagate derogatory attitudes toward female such as "Chhori ko janma hare ko karma" ("A daughter is born with a doomed fate"). Likewise, results derived from INSEC's monitoring of the situation indicated that subjecting women to domestic violence was considered a deep-rooted traditional practice. Survey results also show that 20 and 23 per cent of men and women in Nepal view domestic violence as being acceptable.[ citation needed ]
Despite efforts of various human rights and women's rights NGOs, together with international aid agencies, to lobby for the elimination of domestic violence through implementation of more effective measures, the "Domestic Violence (Crime and Punishment)" bill introduced in 2002 is at a standstill. Complaints by women's rights activists are directed towards the lackadaisical efforts of the law enforcement agencies in which disputes are settled without any charges pressed against the perpetrators. This is reflected in a statement by activist and former National Women's Commission chairperson Bandana Rana, "Often, police and local people try to settle the domestic dispute by pressing the women into accepting their 'fate' as the society is still dominated by Hindu patriarchy with its own set of strict codes—many of which are in conflict with basic rights for women".[ citation needed ]
In May 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic, Human Rights Watch reported that social media groups are abusing Nepali women and girls online. The rights group said that offenders are using intimate photos usually obtained from victims' social media accounts and also using hacking, coercion, or blackmail as a method. The impact of such incidents harms their mental health, reputations, relationships, and access to education and employment, the report added. [17]
Gender equality, also known as sexual equality or equality of the sexes, is the state of equal ease of access to resources and opportunities regardless of gender, including economic participation and decision-making, and the state of valuing different behaviors, aspirations, and needs equally, also regardless of gender.
In 2022, Freedom House rated Nepal’s human rights at 57 out 100, determining the country's status in terms of fundamental freedoms as "partly free".
Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBTQ) rights in Nepal have expanded in the 21st century, though much of Nepal's advancements on LGBT rights have come from the judiciary and not the legislature. Same-sex sexual acts have been legal in Nepal since 2007 after a ruling by the Supreme Court of Nepal.
Women in Kyrgyzstan traditionally had assigned roles, although only the religious elite sequestered women as was done in other Muslim societies. Rural inhabitants continue the traditional Siberian tribal practice of bride kidnapping. Bride kidnapping, known as ala kachuu, girls as young as 12 years old are kidnapped for forced marriage, by being captured and carried away by groups of men or even relatives who, through violence or deception, take the girl to the abductor's family who forces and coerces the young woman to accept the illegal marriage. In most cases, the young woman is raped immediately in the name of marriage.[8]
The status of women in Nepal has varied throughout history. In the early 1990s, like in some other Asian countries, women in Nepal were generally subordinate to men in virtually every aspect of life. Historically, Nepal has been a predominantly patriarchal society where women are generally subordinate to men. Men were considered to be the leader of the family and superior to women. Also, social norms and values were biased in favor of men. This strong bias in favor of sons in society meant that daughters were discriminated against from birth and did not have equal opportunities to achieve all aspects of development. Daughters were deprived of many privileges, including rights, education, healthcare, parental property rights, social status, last rites of dead parents, and were thought to be other's property and liabilities. In the past century, there has been a dramatic positive change in the role and status of women in Nepal, reducing gender inequality. While the 1990 Constitution guaranteed fundamental rights to all citizens without discrimination on the basis of ethnicity, caste, religion, or sex, the modernization of society, along with increased education of the general population, have also played an important role in promoting gender equality. The roles of women have changed in various ways in the modern Nepalese society.
Women in Sri Lanka make up to 52.09% of the population according to the 2012 census of Sri Lanka. Sri Lankan women have contributed greatly to the country's development, in many areas. Historically, a masculine bias has dominated Sri Lankan culture, and they are allowed to vote in election since 1931. Although Sri Lanka has been tremendously successful in achieving greater gender parity, women still suffer a lower status compared with men.
Gender inequality in India refers to health, education, economic and political inequalities between men and women in India. Various international gender inequality indices rank India differently on each of these factors, as well as on a composite basis, and these indices are controversial.
The Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women was adopted without a vote by the United Nations General Assembly in the 48/104 resolution of 20 December 1993. Contained within it is the recognition of "the urgent need for the universal application to women of the rights and principles with regard to equality, security, liberty, integrity and dignity of all human beings". It recalls and embodies the same rights and principles as those enshrined in such instruments as the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, and Articles 1 and 2 provide the most widely used definition of violence against women.
Women in Cambodia, due to the influence of the dominant Khmer culture, are traditionally expected to be modest and soft-spoken. They are to be well-mannered, industrious, and hold a sense of belonging to the household. It is expected that they act as the family's caregivers and caretakers, financial administrators, and serve as the "preserver of the home". As financial administrators, women can be identified as having household authority at the familial level. Khmer women are expected to maintain virginity until marriage, become faithful wives, and act as advisors to their husbands. Women in Cambodia have also be known as “light” walkers-- "light" walking and refinement of the Khmer women is further described as being "quiet in […] movements that one cannot hear the sound of their silk skirt rustling".
Gender inequality can be found in various areas of Salvadoran life such as employment, health, education, political participation, and family life. Although women in El Salvador enjoy equal protection under the law, they are often at a disadvantage relative to their male counterparts. In the area of politics, women have the same rights as men, but the percentage of women in office compared to men is low. Though much progress has been made since the Salvadoran Civil War ended in 1992, women in El Salvador still face gender inequality.
Women in Vanuatu are women who live in or are from Vanuatu. This includes their education, healthcare, political, and economic information.
Gender inequality has been improving a lot in Bangladesh, inequalities in areas such as education and employment remain ongoing problems so women have little political freedom. In 2015, Bangladesh was ranked 139 out of 187 countries on the Human Development Index and 47 out 144 countries surveyed on the Gender Inequality Index in 2017. Many of the inequalities are result of extreme poverty and traditional gender norms centred on a patrilineal and patriarchal kinship system in rural areas.
Gender equality is the notion that each gender should receive equal treatment in all aspects of life, and that one should not be discriminated based on their sex. Gender equality is a human right, which is recognised under the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
Gender inequality in Sri Lanka is centered on the inequalities that arise between men and women in Sri Lanka. Specifically, these inequalities affect many aspects of women's lives, starting with sex-selective abortions and male preferences, then education and schooling in childhood, which influence job opportunities, property rights, access to health and political participation in adulthood. While Sri Lanka is ranked well on several gender equality indices in comparison to other countries in the region, there are also some sources that question the verity of these indices. However, globally, Sri Lanka ranks relatively lower on gender equality indices. Overall, this pattern of social history that disempowers females produces a cycle of undervaluing females, providing only secondary access to health care and schooling and thus fewer opportunities to take on high level jobs or training, which then exacerbates the issue of low political participation and lowered social rights, a cycle studied and noted on by Dr. Elaine Enarson, a disaster sociologist studying the connection between disaster and the role of women.
Women living in Myanmar continue to face barriers to equality. After forty years of isolation, myths about the state of women's rights in Myanmar (Burma) were centered around the conception that Burmese women face less gender discrimination and have more rights than women in surrounding Southeast Asian nations. After Myanmar opened its borders in 2010, gender discrimination began to be seen by the international community. Currently, a variety of organizations--both domestic and international--strive to educate people that this is a misconception to better make strides towards protecting women's rights in Myanmar.
Gender inequality in Nepal refers to disparities and inequalities between men and women in Nepal, a landlocked country in South Asia. Gender inequality is defined as unequal treatment and opportunities due to perceived differences based solely on issues of gender. Gender inequality is a major barrier for human development worldwide as gender is a determinant for the basis of discrimination in various spheres such as health, education, political representation, and labor markets. Although Nepal is modernizing and gender roles are changing, the traditionally patriarchal society creates systematic barriers to gender equality.
Women were a significant group who were involved in the Maoist movement during the Nepalese Civil War, which refers to a violent insurgency that took place from 1996 to 2006. The insurgency was led by the Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist) (Nepali: नेपाल कम्युनिष्ट पार्टी, or CPN with the aim of establishing a People's Republic and ending the rule of the Nepalese Monarchy. During this time, over 13,000 civilians and public officials were murdered, approximately 200,000 were displaced, and numerous others were tortured, extorted, and intimidated. Although the majority of Maoist insurgents were men, the Maoist Party claimed that up to 40 percent of their 19,000 combatants were women. This was regarded as an unprecedented move at the time, given that women were forbidden from fighting in the Nepalese Army until 2003.
Foreign aid for gender equality in Jordan includes programs funded by governments or non-governmental organizations (NGOs) that aim to empower women, close gender based gaps in opportunity and experience, and promote equal access to education, economic empowerment, and political representation in the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan.
In 2017, 1.1 million women were living in Lesotho, making up 51.48% of the population. 33% of women are under 15 years of age, 61.4% are between 15 and 64 years old and 5.3% are over 64 years old. They received full legal status in 2008 with the passage of The Lesotho Bank Savings and Development Act of 2008. Women in Lesotho die at a disproportionate rate from HIV/AIDs. Historically, women have wielded power as heads of households, with control over household financial decisions. The government has taken steps to ensure more equal representation of genders in government with quotas, and women in Lesotho are more highly educated than men. Still, domestic abuse, sexual violence, lack of social mobility, and aforementioned health crises are persistent issues. Social and economic movements, like the mass immigration of men to South Africa, and the rise of the garment industry, have contributed to both the progress and problems facing women in Lesotho today.
Sustainable Development Goal 5 concerns gender equality and is fifth of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals established by United Nations in 2015. The 17 SDGs recognize that action in one area will affect outcomes in others, and that development must balance social, economic and environmental sustainability.