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Emotions are mental states brought on by neurophysiological changes,variously associated with thoughts,feelings,behavioral responses,and a degree of pleasure or displeasure. There is currently no scientific consensus on a definition. Emotions are often intertwined with mood,temperament,personality,disposition,or creativity.
A facial expression is one or more motions or positions of the muscles beneath the skin of the face. According to one set of controversial theories,these movements convey the emotional state of an individual to observers. Facial expressions are a form of nonverbal communication. They are a primary means of conveying social information between humans,but they also occur in most other mammals and some other animal species.
In sociology,social distance describes the distance between individuals or social groups in society,including dimensions such as social class,race/ethnicity,gender or sexuality. Members of different groups mix less than members of the same group. It is the measure of nearness or intimacy that an individual or group feels towards another individual or group in a social network or the level of trust one group has for another and the extent of perceived likeness of beliefs.
Paul Ekman is an American psychologist and professor emeritus at the University of California,San Francisco who is a pioneer in the study of emotions and their relation to facial expressions. He was ranked 59th out of the 100 most cited psychologists of the twentieth century. Ekman conducted seminal research on the specific biological correlations of specific emotions,attempting to demonstrate the universality and discreteness of emotions in a Darwinian approach.
Robert Bolesław Zajonc was a Polish-born American social psychologist who is known for his decades of work on a wide range of social and cognitive processes. One of his most important contributions to social psychology is the mere-exposure effect. Zajonc also conducted research in the areas of social facilitation,and theories of emotion,such as the affective neuroscience hypothesis. He also made contributions to comparative psychology. He argued that studying the social behavior of humans alongside the behavior of other species,is essential to our understanding of the general laws of social behavior. An example of his viewpoint is his work with cockroaches that demonstrated social facilitation,evidence that this phenomenon is displayed regardless of species. A Review of General Psychology survey,published in 2002,ranked Zajonc as the 35th most cited psychologist of the 20th century. He died of pancreatic cancer on December 3,2008 in Palo Alto,California.
An emotional expression is a behavior that communicates an emotional state or attitude. It can be verbal or nonverbal,and can occur with or without self-awareness. Emotional expressions include facial movements like smiling or scowling,simple behaviors like crying,laughing,or saying "thank you," and more complex behaviors like writing a letter or giving a gift. Individuals have some conscious control of their emotional expressions;however,they need not have conscious awareness of their emotional or affective state in order to express emotion.
A frown is a facial expression in which the eyebrows are brought together,and the forehead is wrinkled,usually indicating displeasure,sadness or worry,or less often confusion or concentration. The appearance of a frown varies by culture. An alternative usage in North America is thought of as an expression of the mouth. In those cases when used iconically,as with an emoticon,it is entirely presented by the curve of the lips forming a down-open curve. The mouth expression is also commonly referred to in the colloquial English phrase,especially in the United States,to "turn that frown upside down" which indicates changing from sad to happy.
Socioemotional selectivity theory is a life-span theory of motivation. The theory maintains that as time horizons shrink,as they typically do with age,people become increasingly selective,investing greater resources in emotionally meaningful goals and activities. According to the theory,motivational shifts also influence cognitive processing. Aging is associated with a relative preference for positive over negative information in individuals who have had rewarding relationships. This selective narrowing of social interaction maximizes positive emotional experiences and minimizes emotional risks as individuals become older. According to this theory,older adults systematically hone their social networks so that available social partners satisfy their emotional needs.
The facial feedback hypothesis,rooted in the conjectures of Charles Darwin and William James,is that one's facial expression directly affects their emotional experience. Specifically,physiological activation of the facial regions associated with certain emotions holds a direct effect on the elicitation of such emotional states,and the lack of or inhibition of facial activation will result in the suppression of corresponding emotional states.
Distancing is a concept arising from the work of developmental psychologists Heinz Werner and Bernard Kaplan. Distancing describes the process by which psychologists help a person establish their own individuality through understanding their separateness from everything around them. This understanding of one's identity is considered an essential phase in coming to terms with symbols,which in turn forms the foundation for full cognition and language. Recently,work has been done in psychological distancing in terms of development,personality and behavior.
According to some theories,emotions are universal phenomena,albeit affected by culture. Emotions are "internal phenomena that can,but do not always,make themselves observable through expression and behavior". While some emotions are universal and are experienced in similar ways as a reaction to similar events across all cultures,other emotions show considerable cultural differences in their antecedent events,the way they are experienced,the reactions they provoke and the way they are perceived by the surrounding society. According to other theories,termed social constructionist,emotions are more deeply culturally influenced. The components of emotions are universal,but the patterns are social constructions. Some also theorize that culture is affected by emotions of the people.
Discrete emotion theory is the claim that there is a small number of core emotions. For example,Silvan Tomkins concluded that there are nine basic emotions:interest,enjoyment,surprise,distress,fear,anger,shame,dissmell and disgust. More recently,Carroll Izard at the University of Delaware factor analytically delineated 12 discrete emotions labeled:Interest,Joy,Surprise,Sadness,Anger,Disgust,Contempt,Self-Hostility,Fear,Shame,Shyness,and Guilt.
Emotion classification,the means by which one may distinguish or contrast one emotion from another,is a contested issue in emotion research and in affective science. Researchers have approached the classification of emotions from one of two fundamental viewpoints:
- that emotions are discrete and fundamentally different constructs
- that emotions can be characterized on a dimensional basis in groupings
Emotional self-regulation or emotion regulation is the ability to respond to the ongoing demands of experience with the range of emotions in a manner that is socially tolerable and sufficiently flexible to permit spontaneous reactions as well as the ability to delay spontaneous reactions as needed. It can also be defined as extrinsic and intrinsic processes responsible for monitoring,evaluating,and modifying emotional reactions. Emotional self-regulation belongs to the broader set of emotion regulation processes,which includes both the regulation of one's own feelings and the regulation of other people's feelings.
The study of the evolution of emotions dates back to the 19th century. Evolution and natural selection has been applied to the study of human communication,mainly by Charles Darwin in his 1872 work,The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals. Darwin researched the expression of emotions in an effort to support his materialist theory of unguided evolution. He proposed that much like other traits found in animals,emotions apparently also evolved and were adapted over time. His work looked at not only facial expressions in animals and specifically humans,but attempted to point out parallels between behaviors in humans and other animals.
Construal level theory (CLT) is a theory in social psychology that describes the relation between psychological distance and the extent to which people's thinking is abstract or concrete. The core idea of CLT is that the more distant an object is from the individual,the more abstract it will be thought of,while the closer the object is,the more concretely it will be thought of. In CLT,psychological distance is defined on several dimensions—temporal,spatial,social and hypothetical distance being considered most important,though there is some debate among social psychologists about further dimensions like informational,experiential or affective distance. The theory was developed by the Israeli social psychologists Nira Liberman and the American psychologist Yaacov Trope.
Emotion perception refers to the capacities and abilities of recognizing and identifying emotions in others,in addition to biological and physiological processes involved. Emotions are typically viewed as having three components:subjective experience,physical changes,and cognitive appraisal;emotion perception is the ability to make accurate decisions about another's subjective experience by interpreting their physical changes through sensory systems responsible for converting these observed changes into mental representations. The ability to perceive emotion is believed to be both innate and subject to environmental influence and is also a critical component in social interactions. How emotion is experienced and interpreted depends on how it is perceived. Likewise,how emotion is perceived is dependent on past experiences and interpretations. Emotion can be accurately perceived in humans. Emotions can be perceived visually,audibly,through smell and also through bodily sensations and this process is believed to be different from the perception of non-emotional material.
Batja Mesquita is a Dutch-born social psychologist,a cultural psychologist and an affective scientist. She is a professor of psychology at the University of Leuven,Belgium,where she studies the role of culture in emotions,and of emotions in culture and society. She is director of the Center for Social and Cultural Psychology in Leuven.
Jonathan B. Freeman is an American psychologist and Associate Professor of Psychology at Columbia University. He is best known for his work on the neuroscience of person perception and social cognition,as well as mouse-tracking methodology in cognitive science. His research focuses on the cognitive and neural mechanisms underlying split-second social judgments and their impact on behaviour.
Psychological distance is the degree to which people feel removed from a phenomenon. Distance in this case is not limited to the physical surroundings,rather it could also be abstract. Distance can be defined as the separation between the self and other instances like persons,events,knowledge,or time. Psychological distance was first defined in Trope and Liberman’s Construal Level Theory (CLT). However,Trope and Liberman only identified temporal distance as a separator. This has since been revised to include four categories of distance:spatial,social,hypothetical,and informational distances. Further studies have concluded that all four are strongly and systemically correlated with each other.
References
- 1 2 "CURRICULUM VITAE Yaacov Trope New York University". dokumen.tips. Retrieved 2022-11-28.
- ↑ "2016 APS Mentor Award". Association for Psychological Science – APS. Retrieved 2022-10-27.
- ↑ "Career Contribution Award | Society for Personality and Social Psychology". spsp.org. Retrieved 2022-11-28.
- ↑ "Ostrom Award". Home. Retrieved 2022-11-28.
- ↑ "Yaacov Trope". American Academy of Arts & Sciences. Retrieved 2022-11-28.
- ↑ Arts, -Professor of Psychology – NYU Faculty of; Appointment, Science-Affiliated; Marketing, Department of. "NYU Stern – Yaacov Trope – Professor of Psychology". www.stern.nyu.edu. Retrieved 2022-10-20.
- ↑ "Yaacov Trope | Fulbright Scholar Program". fulbrightscholars.org. Retrieved 2022-11-28.
- ↑ "Yaacov Trope: H-index & Awards – Academic Profile". Research.com. Retrieved 2022-10-27.
- ↑ Trope, Yaacov; Liberman, Nira (2010). "Construal-level theory of psychological distance". Psychological Review. 117 (2): 440–463. doi:10.1037/a0018963. ISSN 1939-1471. PMC 3152826 . PMID 20438233.
- ↑ "Theory | Construal Level Theory". u.osu.edu. Retrieved 2022-12-13.
- ↑ Templin, Neal. "The Urge to Splurge: Don't Worry, It'll Pass". WSJ. Retrieved 2022-12-11.
- ↑ Trope, Yaacov; Liberman, Nira (2003). "Temporal construal". Psychological Review. 110 (3): 403–421. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.110.3.403. ISSN 1939-1471. PMID 12885109.
- ↑ "Study: Facial expressions of intense joy and anguish are indistinguishable | American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS)". www.aaas.org. Retrieved 2022-12-11.
- ↑ Aviezer, Hillel; Trope, Yaacov; Todorov, Alexander (2012-11-30). "Body Cues, Not Facial Expressions, Discriminate Between Intense Positive and Negative Emotions". Science. 338 (6111): 1225–1229. Bibcode:2012Sci...338.1225A. doi:10.1126/science.1224313. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 23197536. S2CID 5867506.
