Zeila (historical region)

This article is about the ancient region in the Horn of Africa. For the town, see Zeila.

Zeila, also known as Zaila or Zayla, was a historical Muslim region in the Horn of Africa. ^{[1] [2] [3] [4]} The region was named after the port city of Zeila in modern-day Somalia. ^{[5] [6]}

Geography

Map of the Zeila region from around 1744, also referred to as the Kingdom of Adal, is situated adjacent to the Oromo (Galla), and Kingdom of Bale to its immediate west, while Mogadishu is positioned to the south.

In the medieval Arab world, Muslim inhabited domains in the Horn of Africa were often referred to as Zeila to differentiate them from the Christian territories designated Habasha. ^{[7] [8] [9] [10]} According to Ibn Battuta, a journey through the whole of Zeila and the Mogadishu region would take eight weeks to complete. ^[11]

Fourteenth century Arab historian Ibn Fadlallah al-Umari recounted on the usage of the term and its origin being the city of Zeila, a vital port in the region. ^[12]

this is the region which is called in Egypt and Syria the land of Zaila. This however is only one of their coastal towns and one of their islands, whose name has been extended to the whole

—  Ibn Fadlallah al-Umari, Masālik al-abṣār fī Mamālik al-amṣār

The Muslim inhabited territories during this period spanned from the commercial port city of Zeila to a place further inland called Walalah. ^[13] Ethiopian scholar Taddesse Tamrat noted that according to the Arab historian Al-Maqrizi, Jabarta was also considered part of the region of Zeila. ^{[14] [15] [16]}

History

Coastline of Zeila, its strategic location and proximity to the Red Sea was of great importance to the rulers of the region.

In the 13th century, the term "Zeila" was often used interchangeably with the Ifat Sultanate, which ruled the region. From the 14th century onward, it referred to its successor state, the Adal Sultanate, as well as the broader Adal region. ^{[17] [18] [19]} Throughout this time period, the demonym al-Zayla'i frequently signified an individual from this region, though it was not consistently specified whether it solely referred to the residents of the city, or whether it also included the Muslims in the interior. ^{[20] [21]}

Arab writer Ibn al-Mujawir describes Aden's cosmopolitan population as diverse, originating from Alexandria, Cairo, South Arabia, Persia, Turkey, Mogadishu, Zeila, and Al-Hujariah. ^[22] He noted that these groups had assimilated, contributing greatly to the town's wealth and prosperity, though he identified the Barābir (Somalis) as the majority. ^[23] Zeila’s distance made shipping water to Aden impractical by the 13th century, leading to the development of the innovative ṣahārij cistern system. ^[24] Ibn al-Mujawir notes it spurred a major advancement in local water management. ^[25]

Emerging amid the bustling trade networks linking the region to Yemen, Egypt, and beyond, Islamic scholars who often bore the nisba al-Zayla'i traveled as diplomats, students, and teachers, fostering connections in centers like Cairo and Damascus. ^[26] Key figures like Abdallah al-Zayla'i, a Hanafi jurist who led an embassy to the Mamluk court, ^[27] and Fakhr al-Din al-Zayla'i, the author of the authoritative four-volume Tabyīn al-Ḥaqāʾiq, advanced the Hanafi school of Islamic jurisprudence. ^{[28] [29]} Abu'l Hasan al-Zayla'i was another highly revered 14th-century Shaykh and jurist whom the famed traveler Ibn Battuta encountered in his Red Sea coastal explorations. Based in Jubla, a quaint highland village near Ta'izz, al-Zayla'i held profound spiritual authority, guiding Hajj pilgrims from Yemen to Makkah, earning him widespread veneration from urban dwellers and Bedouin tribes alike. ^{[30] [31]}

In the fourteenth century, Egyptian historian al-Maqrizi mentioned that the inhabitants of the Zeila region were fond of the stimulant khat leaf, which was grown locally. ^[32] One of the earliest textual references to coffee comes from the Islamic scholar Ibn Hajar al-Haytami, who wrote about its development from a tree in the Zeila region. ^[33] In 1542, a Portuguese crew captured a ship from Zeila transporting clarified butter and coffee to Al-Shihr. ^[34] The beverage is believed to have spread from Adal to the Rasulids in the fifteenth century. ^{[35] [36]}

According to Rasulid-Yemen records, Zeila was the most prominent coastal city, with its sailors transporting goods to Aden using local vessels, making it one of the primary hubs for mainland trade. ^[37] Port towns like Berbera and Maydh were also listed as embarkation points in the almanac of Al-Ashraf Umar II. ^[38] One of the Rasulid Sultans once sought to assert control over Zeila by building a mosque and having Friday prayers conducted in his name, but the city's residents rejected his authority, dumping the intended construction materials into the sea. In response, the Rasulids imposed a one-year embargo between Aden and Zeila. ^[39]

However, Islamic scholars from the Zeila region were instrumental in the establishment and spread of different schools of interpretation and application of Islamic law in Yemen, such as the Shafi'i school and the Qadiriyya Sufi order. ^[40] The Qadari order was so popular in Yemen that one of its scholars, Sharaf al-Din Isma'il al-Jabarti (d. 1403), became a close confidant of the Rasulid ruler Al-Ashraf Isma'il and an administrator in the city of Zabid. ^[41] Similarly, Ali al-Jabarti (d. 1492) held various administrative and religious posts in Egypt. ^[42]

Following the death and defeat of Sa'ad ad-Din II, the last Sultan of Ifat in Zeila at the hands of Ethiopian Emperor Dawit I, his sons fled across the Red Sea to Yemen, seeking refuge at the court of Rasulid Sultan Al-Nasir Ahmad ibn Isma'il. He generously hosted the Walashma princes, and provided them sanctuary amid their exile. This patronage not only preserved the dynasty but also enabled their strategic regrouping, allowing the eldest son Sabr ad-Din III to return to Zeila in 1415 and reestablish the Walashma dynasty. ^{[43] [44] [45]}

Fei Xin, a chronicler documenting Zheng He's voyages, highlights Zeila as a key destination during the Ming dynasty's expeditions, with visits occurring between 1413–1415 and 1417–1419. ^[46] The chronicle notes that in 1416, Zeila dispatched envoys carrying tribute, prompting Zheng He to send reciprocal gifts. The account describes Zeila as a coastal city reachable from Calicut in twenty days, whose inhabitants built stone walls and houses of three to four storeys, lived in desert conditions, and traded goods such as frankincense; similar to the women of Hormuz, the women of Zeila covered their hair with the hijab. ^{[47] [48]}

The fifteenth-century empress Eleni of Ethiopia was styled as 'Queen of Zeila' due to her Muslim upbringing and her connection to the Hadiya Sultanate. ^[49] The leaders of Adal were also often referred to as the 'Kings of Zeila' in texts, most notably Imam Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi, the conqueror of Abyssinia. ^{[50] [51]}

An early 16th-century account by the Ethiopian Brother Antonio of Urvuar (Lalibela) describes Zeila as an "excellent port" visited by Moorish fleets from Cambay in India which brought many articles, including cloth of gold and silk. Another early 16th-century account by the Florentine trader Andrea Corsali reported that it was visited by many ships laden with much merchandise. ^[52] The 1516 account of Duarte Barbosa describes Zeila’s “houses of stone and white-wash, and good streets, the houses are covered with terraces, the dwellers in them are black.” ^[53]

A coeval observer from Europe and Italian merchant, Ludovico di Varthema described Zeila as a bustling trade hub, particularly for gold and ivory. He noted that the people were living extremely well, and that it was governed by a Muslim king who administered justice effectively. The region boasted abundant grain, livestock, oil, honey, and wax, much of which was exported. Varthema also mentioned that many captives from the Ethiopian Empire, referred to as the lands of 'Prester John' passed through Zeila destined for slavery, suggesting ongoing conflicts with the Solomonic dynasty. ^[54]

The port of Zeila was a key trading zone and entrepôt, notably during the sixteenth century, functioning as one of the principal ports of the Muslim Sultanate of Adal. Historical accounts, such as those by João de Barros, highlight its significant role in the weapons trade, including an instance in the 1510s when a Catalan ship sold arms there, underscoring the town’s importance in regional commerce during that period. ^[55] Additionally, Arab Faqih noted that through the port of Zeila, Adal was supplied with cannons and soldiers by a range of allies such as the Ottomans and Al-Mahrah during the Ethiopian–Adal War, further highlighting its military and commercial significance. ^{[56] [57] [58]}

German orientalist Hiob Ludolf offered a profound commentary on the Ethiopian–Adal War and stated:

“Next, the Turks, out of their inbred hatred to Christianity, had supplied their Mahometan friends with fire-arms, and such as knew well how to use them; whose thunder, then by the Abyssines first heard, they were not able to endure; nor did they know how to cure the wounds which the bullets made, as not being accustomed to them.“ ^{[59] [60]}

Portuguese Jesuit missionary Manuel de Almeida, writing in the early seventeenth century, provided a detailed account of the sixteenth-century Oromo expansion into Ethiopia, which he described as a form of divine retribution directed at Abyssinia and the Adal Sultanate. He noted that the incursions began during the reign of Emperor Dawit II, coinciding with the campaigns of Gragn, and struck both the Kingdom of Bale and Adal. In his view, the Oromo weakened the rival powers simultaneously, serving as a mutual scourge and omen for both sides, while also implicitly urging Ethiopia to “abominate the heresies of Eutyches and Dioscurus” and align itself with the Catholic Church in Portugal. ^{[61] [62]}

The seventeenth century saw the decline of Adal, described as being divided into smaller separate states due to the “long and bloody” wars waged in Abyssinia. ^[63] According to Samuel Augustus Mitchell, the neighbouring port of Berbera eventually replaced Zeila and flourished in trade, extending to the Emirate of Harar whose Sultan ruled over the Somalis. ^[64] However during this period, British government official James Henson noted that Berbera and the surrounding region was controlled by the local merchant Sharmarke Ali Saleh. ^[65]

In the 18th century, Zeila’s strategic position on the Gulf of Aden drew increasing European attention, which ultimately set the stage for its integration into colonial spheres. By the early 1800s, figures like Haji Sharmarke (governor from 1840–1855) would navigate Ottoman, Egyptian, and British claims, but Zeila's role as a trade nexus persisted until it was eclipsed by the Ethio-Djibouti Railways in the late 19th century. ^{[66] [67]} Thus, although Zeila’s influence waned, its legacy as a center for maritime trade and Islamic scholarship continued to shape the Horn of Africa’s historical landscape. ^{[68] [69] [70]}

Inhabitants

Ruins of Masjid al-Qiblatayn in Zeila, built in the 7th century by the Muhajirun from Makkah.

According to John Fage and I.M. Lewis, the main inhabitants of Zeila were ancestral to the Somali tribes who historically resided in the region. ^{[71] [72]} According to Richard Burton, al-Maqrizi mentions the ‘Kingdom of Zayla' using the Harari moniker. ^[73] Somalis were among the earliest converts to the Islamic religion. Often presented as evidence for this conversion is the Masjid al-Qiblatayn built in Zeila during the first migration to Abyssinia. ^{[74] [75]}

With the expansion of Islam into Africa during the seventh century, the Somali language, particularly the Northern Somali dialects, was significantly influenced by Arabic ^[76] as well as the Harari language with traditional titles such as Garad, Malaq, and Aw embraced by various Somali clans. ^{[77] [78]} The Zeila region, located at the crossroads of two continents by the Bab el Mandeb Strait is sometimes classified within the sphere of South Semitic languages. ^{[79] [80]}

In the nineteenth century the inhabitants of Zeila narrated to one British commissioner that the ruined town of Amud (in the Zeila region) was built by the ancient Harla people. The British commissioner attested to the similarities between the ruins of Amud and that of the walled city of Harar. ^[81]

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