Zungeni Mountain skirmish

Last updated

Zungeni Mountain skirmish
Part of the Anglo-Zulu War
Death of lt frith.png
Death of Lieutenant Frith, as depicted by Melton Prior in the Illustrated London News of 2 August 1879. Frith is supported in the saddle by a civilian and a fellow officer of the 17th Lancers, a trooper holds the bridle of Frith's horse.
Date5 June 1879
Location
Zululand
28°17′30″S30°55′30″E / 28.29167°S 30.92500°E / -28.29167; 30.92500 [1]
Result Inconclusive
Belligerents
Flag of the United Kingdom.svg British Empire Zulu Kingdom
Commanders and leaders
Flag of the United Kingdom.svg Frederick Marshall
Flag of the United Kingdom.svg Redvers Buller 		Unknown
Strength
800 mounted troops 300 irregular infantry
Casualties and losses
One officer killed
At least two men wounded		 At least 25 killed
South Africa adm location map.svg
Red pog.svg
class=notpageimage|
Approximate location in present-day South Africa

The Zungeni Mountain skirmish took place on 5 June 1879 between British and Zulu forces during the second invasion of Zululand, in what is now part of South Africa, during the later stages of the Anglo-Zulu War. British irregular horse commanded by Colonel Redvers Buller discovered a force of 300 Zulus at the settlement of eZulaneni near Zungeni Mountain. [nb 1] The horsemen charged and scattered the Zulus before burning the settlement. Buller's men withdrew after coming under fire from the Zulus who had threatened to surround them.

Contents

Buller's men were joined by more irregulars and a force of British regular cavalry, under the command of Major-General Frederick Marshall. Two squadrons of the 17th (The Duke of Cambridge's Own) Lancers, led by Colonel Drury Drury-Lowe, approached the Zulus. Their horses cleared were not able to close with the Zulus, who were in an area of long grass and bushes, and Zulu fire killed the Lancers' regimental adjutant, Lieutenant Frederick John Cokayne Frith. Drury-Lowe ordered some of his men to dismount and return fire but again the Zulus threatened to outflank the British and Marshall ordered a withdrawal. Aside from Frith the British casualties included two irregulars wounded; two months after the battle the remains of 25 Zulus were discovered on the battlefield. The British paused to fortify their camp before proceeding further into Zululand. They then decisively defeated the Zulu in the 4 July Battle of Ulundi.

Background

Following the discovery of diamonds in Southern Africa, it became British policy to expand and consolidate their influence in the region. [9] The High Commissioner for Southern Africa, Sir Henry Bartle Frere, viewed the independent Zulu Kingdom, bordering the British colonies of Natal and Transvaal, as a possible threat and sought an excuse to declare war and annex it. After failing to use a boundary dispute as a means of forcing the Zulu king Cetshwayo into war, Frere seized upon a July 1878 legal dispute. Two wives of the Zulu chief Sihayo kaXongo had fled to Natal, an armed band, led by his sons, entered the colony to retrieve them for execution. [10]

In December 1878 Frere mobilised British troops on the borders of Zululand and presented Cetshwayo with an ultimatum, requiring him to turn over Sihayo's sons and the renegade Swazi prince Mbilini waMswati, who had raided into the Transvaal, and pay a fine of cattle. [11] [12] He also demanded wholesale changes to the Zulu system of government; including limits on the use of the death penalty, the requirement for judicial trials, supervision of the state by a British official, admission of Christian missionaries and the abolition of the Zulu social/army system known as iButho. [13] The ultimatum was harsh, demanding radical change in the Zulu way of life, and it was intended by Frere that Cetshwayo would reject it. [14]

The iButhosystem, established by Shaka, separated men into age-grouped regiments based in barracks spread across the country which served as focal points of royal authority and a pool of labour in peacetime. When granted permission by the king to marry, around age 40, the men were released to the control of local chiefs, but remained liable for recall as a form of reserve. In times of war they were called up to form the royal army, though some chiefs kept back men for their own use. [15]

Although he could not comply with the British terms, particularly the abolition of the iButho, Cetshwayo made some attempts at conciliation, sending representatives and cattle to the British. When these were rejected Cetshwayo made preparations for a defensive war. He ordered the regiments, set to assemble at the Zulu capital of Ulundi on 8 January for the umKhosi (First Fruits) ceremony, to come prepared for combat. [16] By this time the number of men liable for service in the army numbered around 42,000-44,000, out of a population of around 300,000. [3] [17] Around 25,000 assembled at Ulundi for the ceremony. [18] Although there were around 20,000 firearms in Zulu possession by the start of the war, most were obsolete muzzle-loading muskets and the men were not trained in their use. [nb 2] Zulu practice was to use them as secondary weapons, in place of the traditional assegai throwing spear, and to be discarded in favour of closing with the enemy to allow use of the iklwa stabbing spear. [23]

British invasions of Zululand

When the ultimatum expired, British forces under Lieutenant-General Lord Chelmsford invaded Zululand in three columns. [24] One of the first actions of the British Centre Column was to attack Sihayo's homestead near the Natal border on 12 January. Sihayo and the main bulk of his men had already left to join the royal army, but a party of old men and boys offered a determined resistance to the British attack from the cover of rocky and vegetated terrain. [25] [26] On 22 January the royal army attacked the British camp at Isandlwana, effectively wiping it out and ending the first invasion. The British Right Column was afterwards besieged by the Zulu at Eshowe while the Left Column remained in the vicinity of Kambula where it engaged local Zulu forces. [27] Chelmsford requested that reinforcements be sent out from Britain, including a cavalry brigade formed by the 1st King's Dragoon Guards and the 17th (The Duke of Cambridge's Own) Lancers under the command of Major-General Frederick Marshall. [28]

Chelmsford relieved the siege of Eshowe on 3 April and withdrew the Right Column back to the British Colony of Natal. He reorganised his forces into two main thrusts. The reinforced Right Column was re-designated the 1st Division and was tasked with a steady advance along the east coast. The survivors of the Centre Column were reinforced with the cavalry brigade and other fresh troops and became the 2nd Division that would advance on the Zulu capital Ulundi. [29] The Left Column, which contained a high proportion of colonial irregular horse that fought as mounted infantry, was re-designated as a flying column under Colonel Evelyn Wood. [30] This column was to operate in conjunction with the 2nd Division, supporting its advance on Ulundi. [29] [30]

British movements during the second invasion of Zululand, on a contemporary military map. .mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{} Second Division Wood's Flying Column Combined advance on Ulundi Site of the death of the Prince Imperial Zungeni Mountain skirmish The Nondweni River camp/Fort Newdigate is the red square immediately north of Zungeni Mountain Second Invasion of Zululand.png
British movements during the second invasion of Zululand, on a contemporary military map.
  Second Division
  Wood's Flying Column
  Combined advance on Ulundi
BlackNode.svg Site of the death of the Prince Imperial
Asexual symbol.svg Zungeni Mountain skirmish
The Nondweni River camp/Fort Newdigate is the red square immediately north of Zungeni Mountain

By the end of May, the 2nd Division, commanded by Major-General Edward Newdigate, had advanced from Dundee and was assembled on the banks of the Ncome River at Koppie Allein, ready to begin the invasion. Chelmsford joined the division on 31 May and commenced the advance into Zululand, simultaneously with Wood further to the north. [31] On 1 June Napoléon, Prince Imperial of France, who had marched with the 2nd Division, was killed when the patrol he was with was overrun by the Zulu. [32] The 2nd Division and Wood's flying column made contact on 3 June but continued to camp separately; on 4 June Wood camped at a site near the Nondweni River while the 2nd Division remained a day's march to the west. [30] [33]

Also on 4 June, a patrol of Baker's Horse from the flying column encountered a force of several hundred Zulus at eZulaneni, a collection of four large homesteads between the Zungeni Mountain (which was known to the British as Ezunganyan Hill) and the Ntinini stream, south of Wood's camp. They also identified, at one of the homesteads, three wagons and an ammunition cart which had been captured by the Zulu at Isandlwana. [34] The Zulus formed a skirmish line among the dongas (dry watercourses), thorn trees and mimosa bushes and were engaged by a skirmish line of Baker's Horse. The Zulus operated in their classic "horns of the buffalo" formation and their right "horn" crossed a steep-sided donga and came within 30 yards (27 m) of the rear of the British line. A Zulu volley wounded two men before the men of Baker's Horse could withdraw to Wood's camp. [35]

Wood passed word to Chelmsford that a significant force of Zulus were in the area, implying that this was the long-expected appearance of the Zulu royal army. Chelmsford ordered the 2nd Division to laager its camp and erect earthworks in anticipation on an imminent attack. [35]

Skirmish

Irregular horse

An 1884 depiction of two men of the Frontier Light Horse during the war Frontier Light Horse Zulu War.jpg
An 1884 depiction of two men of the Frontier Light Horse during the war

Keen to confirm if the Zulus encountered at eZulaneni were part of the royal army, a reconnaissance force was sent from the flying column at dawn on 5 June. [35] This force, commanded by Lieutenant-Colonel Redvers Buller, included a squadron of Baker's Horse, a squadron of the Frontier Light Horse and a troop of the Natal Light Horse, totalling around 300 men. [36] At 4:30 am the 2nd Division sent out a force under Marshall's command that included two squadrons of Lancers, a squadron of the King's Dragoon Guards, 130 men of Shepstone's Native Horse and 7 men from No. 3 Troop (Bettington's Horse) of the Natal Horse, totalling around 500 men. [37] [38] [39] Marshall's force halted for breakfast at the camp of the flying column before following in Buller's wake. [35]

Buller's men approached eZulaneni via the eastern flanks of Mahutshane mountain, at the same time mapping a potential wagon route for future use. [35] It was still early morning when Buller's men came into sight of the Zulus at eZulaneni, and 300 of them formed a skirmish line between the British and the homesteads. [40] [39] [35] Buller formed his own line, on the opposite side of the Ntinini stream; Baker's Horse formed up on his left, the Frontier Light Horse in the centre and the Natal Light Horse on his right. Buller then ordered a mounted charge against the Zulus, breaking into a gallop after they had crossed the steep-sided bed of the Ntinini. The Zulus broke their line and reformed into companies in the cover of the vegetation and dongas at the foot of Zungeni mountain, around 400 yards (370 m) east of the homesteads, from which they opened fire on the British force. [35]

Buller led most of the Frontier Light Horse and Baker's Horse towards the Zulus as a distraction while the Natal Light Horse set fire to the homesteads. Buller's men dismounted at the edge of the vegetation and engaged the Zulus from the cover of some nearby anthills. The British found it hard to discern the Zulus in the cover and had to just fire at the smoke that indicated their position. Buller observed the action by telescope from atop an anthill and gave the order to withdraw as soon as all the homesteads were on fire. [41] He had also become aware of the risk of being surrounded, as a party of Zulus who had moved up into a mealie field on his left. [31] [40] [41]

The irregulars had to withdraw on foot and mount up under Zulu fire, particularly from the Zulus in the mealie field who were within 80 yards (73 m) of the British horses. At least one horse was killed and several others wounded, one of which had to be abandoned. [41] Two men of Baker's Horse were also lightly wounded before Buller's force pulled back. [39] [41]

Regular cavalry

A depiction of Zulus during the war, the man at left carries a Martini-Henry rifle and wears a British ammunition belt A-Zulu-regiment-attacking-at-iSandlwana.jpg
A depiction of Zulus during the war, the man at left carries a Martini-Henry rifle and wears a British ammunition belt

After leaving the camp of the flying column, Marshall's force followed the sound of gunfire until they found Buller's men retiring from combat at a point around 2,500 yards (2,300 m) west of Zungeni Mountain (and back across the Ntinini). [31] [39] Marshall's regulars, who had recently arrived in Africa, were eager to see their first action and keen to avenge the death of the Prince Imperial. [42] [35] Two squadrons of the 17th Lancers under their Colonel Drury Drury-Lowe were committed to an attack on the Zulus. [41] The lancers approached the mountain in line formation but came under fire as they reached the burning homesteads. [41] The cavalry passed by the Zulu position several times but were unable to engage them effectively in close combat owing to the difficult terrain. [31]

The Zulus held their ground and shot at the passing riders. [31] The 17th Lancer's adjutant, Lieutenant Frederick John Cokayne Frith, was struck in the heart by a shot from a range of 300 yards (270 m) and killed. [43] The Illustrated London News 's correspondent, Melton Prior, witnessed Frith's death and noted he was killed whilst riding between Colonel Drury-Lowe and Francis Francis, correspondent of The Times . [44] In an 1899 talk on the war, eyewitness Private Miles Gissop of the 17th Lancers recalled that Frith had been shot immediately after Drury-Lowe had reassured his troops: "you are all right men. You are all right, they [the bullets] are all passing over your heads". Gissop noted that Frith stated, "Oh I'm shot", before falling dead from his horse. [43] It was later determined that the bullet that killed Frith had been made in Britain and was fired from a Martini–Henry rifle, both having been captured by the Zulus during earlier engagements. [31] [nb 3] General Garnet Wolseley, who replaced Chelmsford as commander of British forces in southern Africa in early July, noted in his journal that he was told that Marshall had fainted from excitement when Frith was shot. [4]

Following Frith's death Drury-Lowe dismounted a troop within 150 yards (140 m) of the Zulu skirmishers in the vegetation and began exchanging fire, to little effect. [41] [39] Again, Zulu forces moved to outflank the British skirmish line. [31] Marshall spotted the difficulty the Lancers were in and ordered them to retire, sending the squadron of the King's Dragoon Guards across the Ntinini to provide supporting fire from their right flank. When the Zulu fire declined, the Lancers were able to withdraw with a captain and two troopers carrying Firth's body. [41] Gissop noted that after the withdrawal some Zulus emerged from the bushes to count the British dead, though Frith was the only one. [43]

Withdrawal

The Zulu pursued the retiring cavalry in skirmish order, keeping up a constant but ineffective fire. Some Zulus crossed the Ntinini and entered into a donga on the British flank from which they were able to fire into Buller's irregulars who had offsaddled for a rest. Although not suffering any injury Buller's men quickly mounted and withdrew over the Mathutshane. They returned to the flying column, which had moved its camp southwards by 6 miles (9.7 km), burning a number of abandoned Zulu homesteads along the way. [41]

The regular cavalry remained on a small plain west of the Ntini and attempted to tempt the Zulus into the open ground by hiding behind a small rise. This failed as their long lances and fluttering pennons were still visible to the Zulus. They eventually withdrew to the 2nd Division, which had advanced to the former site of the flying column's camp near the Nondweni River. [41] The Zulus shadowed the British for several miles but combat was not resumed. [46]

Frith was buried that evening in a mealie field near the Nondweni River camp; the funeral was presided over by Chaplain George Smith and attended by Chelmsford and most of the division's officers. [47] Zulu casualties during the action are not certain but, on 3 August, a British firewood gathering party found the remains of 25 Zulus in the bushes and grass of the battlefield. [40] [39]

Later events

During the day of the action Chelmsford had spoken at the Nondweni River camp with three peace envoys from Cetshwayo; these were sent away in the evening with conditions that Chelmsford knew would be largely unacceptable to Cetshwayo. [39] [48] From 6 June the camp was developed into a fortified base, known as Fort Newdigate, to support the advance further into Zululand. [31] The action at Zungeni Mountain and the death of the Prince Imperial, who had been a popular figure among the British staff officers, unsettled the men of the 2nd Division. [49] [50] On the evening of 6 June, a false alarm at Fort Newdigate led to chaos with more than 1,000 rifle shots made from the perimeter and several rounds of artillery canister shot fired. Seven British soldiers were wounded by friendly fire and several horses killed before order was restored. [51]

The discovery of a group of Zulus at Zungeni had initially led to fears that the Zulu royal army was nearby. This led to the postponement of the court-martial of Lieutenant Jahleel Brenton Carey for failing in his duty as commander during the death of the Prince Imperial. [52] However, intelligence gathered during the skirmish at Zungeni proved that the Zulus were not from the main army, whose men had largely returned to their homes after the victory at Isandlwana, but were local levies. [52] [3] Cetshwayo was still hopeful that peace could be negotiated and had delayed the recall of the royal army, now around 20,000 strong, to Ulundi until later in June. [53] A further raid on Zungeni was mounted on 8 June by a force of lancers, dragoons and two 7-pounder artillery pieces. This forced the Zulus to withdraw towards Ulundi and lead to the burning of several more homesteads. [54] [41] Carey's court-martial proceeded on 12 June and he was found guilty of "misbehaviour before the enemy". [55] On 13 June Chelmsford removed Marshall from the 2nd Division, placing him in command of this lines of communication, Drury-Lowe became the senior cavalry officer with the two columns. [56]

The cavalry charge at Ulundi 17th lancers at Ulundi.jpg
The cavalry charge at Ulundi

The 2nd Division and Wood's flying column continued their march into Zululand on 18 June, patrolling regularly to drive off Zulu forces and establishing several more fortified camps. [30] [1] [57] The Zulu were finally defeated at the 4 July Battle of Ulundi, where a British square stood firm against repeated assaults. When the Zulus began to falter, Chelmsford ordered Drury-Lowe to lead five troops of lancers and one of sword-armed dragoon guards out of the square. On an open plain against a spent enemy they proved their worth and swept the battlefield clear to a distance of 3 miles (4.8 km) and killed 150 Zulus. Drury-Lowe considered the action demonstrated the superiority of the lance over the sword in pursuit conditions. [58] Afterwards, some of the horsemen from the force were returned to Natal, while others were kept on for some months to ensure the pacification of Zululand. [30] [1] Prior had made a sketch of the moment of Frith's death during the skirmish and an engraving based on this was published on the front page of the 2 August 1879 edition of the Illustrated London News. [59]

Analysis

British historian Ian Knight regards the skirmish as an example of the expanded role played in the war by irregular, locally-directed Zulu forces after Isandlwana. [3] South African historian John Laband notes that while the irregular forces were the only Zulus offering any real resistance to the second invasion, in the early 20th century they were derided by veterans of the royal army who had little praise for men who they considered fought "in forests and fastnesses" rather than taking "up a position in the open and [coming] face to face with the foe". [60]

Laband regards the unknown Zulu commander during the skirmish at Zungeni to have displayed excellent tactical command skills and the ability to innovate, which he considers was lacking in the elderly commanders of the Zulu royal army who defaulted to assaults on fortified positions. Laband notes that at Zungeni the Zulus deployed skirmishing and enfilading tactics and made good use of cover and difficult terrain to engage the technologically superior British force. [61] This was particularly effective when Zulu marksmen, such as those with pre-war experience of work with hunting parties, were employed with modern weapons such as captured Martini-Henry rifles. [62]

Laband notes that the skirmish at Zungeni Mountain showed the limitations of the use of regular cavalry armed with melee weapons against the Zulu. The lancers' large horses were also ill-suited to the terrain of Zululand when compared with the cobs and ponies preferred by the irregulars. The lancers performed well in the latter stages of the Battle of Ulundi when they rode down withdrawing Zulu forces on an open plain but they were not the right choice for engaging a fresh force of firearm-wielding skirmishers in rough ground. [62] Laband regards the order by Marshall for the lancers to engage at Zungeni as a mistake, given that the objective of burning eZulaneni had already been achieved. [4]

The lancers were armed with carbines and trained to use them dismounted, in a similar manner as Buller's irregulars but considered it an inferior form of combat used by lesser mounted troops. The lancers had only arrived in Southern Africa in April 1879 and reached Natal in May. They had had little chance to adapt to local conditions and the tactics of the Zulus. [62] A Times of Natal correspondent and eyewitness to the skirmish compared the tactics of the lancers unfavourably with that of the irregulars, though he commended their gallantry and discipline. [41]

Engagements such as the action at Zungeni Mountain, together with the skirmish that resulted in the death of the Prince Imperial, were successful in locally and temporarily disrupting the activities of the British and causing embarrassment to Chelmsford, but ultimately had no effect on the outcome of the war. [63]

Laband notes that the tactics exhibited by the Zulus at Zungeni Mountain resembled those of the most successful Zulu irregular forces, those operating in the north-west of Zululand. There, partly under the leadership of the renegade Swazi prince Mbilini waMswati, locally-directed Zulu forces inflicted defeats on the British at the 12 March Battle of Intombe and the 28 March Battle of Hlobane. The Kubheka people of the region, operating as guerrillas from their cave homesteads, became the last Zulu forces to resist the British, not surrendering until 8 September. [64] [3] [65]

Notes

  1. ↑ In most English language sources "Zungeni Mountain" is used to describe this location. [2] [3] [1] [4] Some use eZungeni Hill [5] or eZungeni Mountain [6] , following the use of the locative "e-" prefix in the Zulu language to denote "place of". [7] The contemporary British Army List uses "affair at Erzungayan" to refer to the skirmish. [8]
  2. ↑ Zulu firearms included many sold off as British Army surplus, ranging from the Napoleonic-era smooth-bored Brown Bess musket through to the Pattern 1853 Enfield rifle-musket. Very few Africans in this period could afford to equip themselves with the most modern breech-loading rifles, which allowed a higher rate of fire and easier skirmishing from a prone or kneeling position. Among the Zulu, weapons tended to be in poor repair, gunpowder and ammunition tended to be low quality and in short supply and formal musketry training non-existent. British accounts from Zulu War battlefields note the high volume of fire from the Zulus for little effect. [19] [20] British infantry were armed with the 1875 breech-loading Martini–Henry rifle, effective to a range of 500 yards (460 m) and notable for its stopping power. Regular cavalry were equipped with the similar but slightly shorter Martini–Henry carbine, in addition to their melee weapon (lance or sword). British irregulars carried a mix of breech-loading carbines including the Martini–Henry, the Swinburn–Henry and Snider–Enfield. [21] [22]
  3. ↑ The Zulus captured almost 1,000 Martini–Henry rifles and Swinburn–Henry carbines at Isandlwana and up to 200 at the battles of Intombe and Hlobane as well as more than 500,000 rounds of ammunition. Most of the weapons were retained by the royal army but some found their way into the hands of local, irregular forces. [45]

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 Smith 2014, p. 194.
  2. ↑ Laband 2009a, p. 324.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 Knight 2008, p. 110.
  4. 1 2 3 Laband 2023, p. 348.
  5. ↑ Greaves 2005, p. 299.
  6. ↑ Laband 1993, p. 5.
  7. ↑ Marten et al. 2025, p. 325.
  8. ↑ Annual Army List (PDF). London: John Murray. 1883. p. 138.
  9. ↑ Knight 2008, p. 4.
  10. ↑ Knight 2008, p. 5.
  11. ↑ Greaves 2012, pp. 30–31.
  12. ↑ Smith 2014, p. 26.
  13. ↑ Greaves 2012, pp. 37–39.
  14. ↑ Paulin 2001, p. 70.
  15. ↑ Knight 2015, pp. 33–35.
  16. ↑ Greaves & Mkhize 2014, pp. 92–94.
  17. ↑ Greaves & Mkhize 2014, p. 95.
  18. ↑ Knight 2015, p. 35.
  19. ↑ Laband 2014, pp. 18–20.
  20. ↑ Knight 2004, pp. 183–184.
  21. ↑ Castle 2003, pp. 35–36.
  22. ↑ Knight 1991, pp. 22, 27, 49–50.
  23. ↑ Laband 2009b, p. 43.
  24. ↑ Greaves 2005, p. 108.
  25. ↑ Knight 2015, pp. 210–211.
  26. ↑ Greaves & Mkhize 2014, pp. 98–99.
  27. ↑ Knight & Castle 2003, p. 62.
  28. ↑ Laband 2009a, p. 35.
  29. 1 2 Knight & Castle 2003, p. 86.
  30. 1 2 3 4 5 Laband 2009a, p. 309.
  31. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Greaves 2005, pp. 299–300.
  32. ↑ Knight & Castle 2003, p. 87.
  33. ↑ Smith 2014, p. 189.
  34. ↑ Laband 2009a, p. 313.
  35. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Laband 1993, p. 7.
  36. ↑ Laband 2009a, pp. 10, 100, 176, 323–324.
  37. ↑ Laband 2009a, pp. 150, 175, 254, 323–324.
  38. ↑ Laband 1993, pp. 7–8.
  39. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Rothwell 1989, p. 96.
  40. 1 2 3 Laband 2009a, pp. 323–324.
  41. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Laband 1993, p. 8.
  42. ↑ Laband 2009a, pp. 323–324, 138, 68.
  43. 1 2 3 Clammer 1980, pp. 87–88.
  44. ↑ "Zulu War Illustrations". Illustrated London News. No. 2094. 2 August 1879. p. 109.
  45. ↑ Knight 2004, p. 185.
  46. ↑ Knight 2015, p. 211.
  47. ↑ Laband 1993, p. 9.
  48. ↑ Knight 2004, p. 245.
  49. ↑ Knight 2004, p. 241.
  50. ↑ David 2004, p. 315.
  51. ↑ Knight 2004, pp. 242–243.
  52. 1 2 David 2004, p. 331.
  53. ↑ Sutherland & Canwell 2004, p. 98.
  54. ↑ Smith 2014, p. 190.
  55. ↑ David 2004, pp. 333.
  56. ↑ Laband 2023, pp. 348–349.
  57. ↑ Laband 2023, p. 375.
  58. ↑ Knight 2004, p. 254.
  59. ↑ "The Zulu War Death of Lieutenant Frith in Skirmish at Erzungayan Hill". Illustrated London News. No. 2094. 2 August 1879. p. 97.
  60. ↑ Laband 2014, p. 251.
  61. ↑ Laband 2009b, pp. 43–44.
  62. 1 2 3 Laband 1993, p. 6.
  63. ↑ Laband 2014, pp. 251–252.
  64. ↑ Laband 2009b, p. 44.
  65. ↑ Laband 2014, p. 252.

Bibliography

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.