In Christianity, exorcism involves the practice of casting out one or more demons from a person whom they are believed to have possessed. The person performing the exorcism, known as an exorcist, is often a member of the Christian Church, or an individual thought to be graced with special powers or skills. The exorcist may use prayers and religious material, such as set formulas, gestures, symbols, icons, or amulets. The exorcist often invokes God, Jesus, angels and archangels, and various saints to aid with the exorcism. Christian exorcists most commonly cast out demons in Jesus' name.[1]
The concepts of demonic possession and exorcism are found in the Bible and were practiced by the early Christians, especially gaining prominence in the 2nd century.[2][3]
In general, people considered to be possessed are not regarded as evil in themselves, nor wholly responsible for their actions, because possession is considered to be manipulation of an unwilling victim by a demon resulting in harm to self or others. Accordingly, practitioners regard exorcism as more of a cure than a punishment. The mainstream rituals usually take this into account, making sure that there is no violence to the possessed, only that they be tied down if there is potential for violence.[4] However, some believe possession is a voluntary act, where individuals permit demons to subjugate them.[5][6]
Old Testament
The Catholic Encyclopedia says that there is only one apparent case of this demonic possession in the Old Testament, of KingSaul being tormented by an "evil spirit" (1 Samuel 16:14), but it relies on a reading of the Hebrew word "rûah" as "evil spirit", an interpretation doubted by the Catholic Encyclopedia.[7] The Catholic Encyclopedia ties exorcism methods mentioned in extra-canonical Jewish literature to the driving off of a demon in the Book of Tobias.[8] Some theologians such as Ángel Manuel Rodríguez say that mediums like the ones mentioned in Leviticus 20:27 were possessed by demons.[9]
David Bar-Cohn states that authors of the Priestly Law believed in demons but "de-mythologized" them as nameless, destructive forces that were under YHWH's control.[10] Likewise, the Torah criticizes the superstitious belief that twice-widowed women possessed demonic powers so they could kill their husbands (e.g. Judah refusing to marry Shelah to Tamar, whose previous husbands died due to sin).[11]
Israelite belief in demons derived from their semi-nomadic ancestors, who believed demons could be warded off with sacrificial blood. This belief was subsequently preserved in holidays such as Passover.[12]
Christian exorcism is founded on the belief that Jesus commanded his followers to expel evil spirits in his name.[13] The Catholic Encyclopedia article on Exorcism says Jesus points to this ability as a sign of his Messiahship, and that he has empowered his disciples to do the same.[8]
The Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod traces the practice of exorcism to the Scriptural claim that Jesus Christ expelled demons with a simple command (Mark 1:23–26; 9:14–29; Luke 11:14–26).[14] The apostles continued the practice with the power and in the name of Jesus (Matthew 10:1; Acts 19:11–16).[14]
The Jewish Encyclopedia article on Jesus states that Jesus, "was devoted especially to casting out demons," and also believed that he passed this on to his followers; however, "his superiority to his followers was shown by his casting out demons which they had failed to expel."[15]
Matthew Poole believes demon possessions were more common in the New Testament so that Jesus could prove his authority over demons to audiences. He also believes God allowed these possessions to correct the 'error' of the Sadducees, who did not believe in spirits.[16] But Reed Carlson argues that belief in demon possession has roots in earlier Israelite literature. Israelites believed that possession was "a corporate and cultivated practice that can function as social commentary and as a means to model the moral self".[6]
History
Early church
St. Cyril of Jerusalem wrote, "Receive the exorcisms with devotion...Divine exorcisms, borrowed from the Scripture, purify the soul."[17]
The First Epistle to the Corinthians in 11:10, according to the early Church Father Tertullian, referenced the Watchers.[18] Tertullian taught that the lust of the Watchers was the reason for Saint Paul's directive to Christian women to wear a headcovering for protection.[18] Tertullian referenced the case of a woman who was touched on the neck by a fallen angel "who found her to be a temptation".[19]
Lollardy opposed the practice of exorcisms. The Twelve Conclusions of the Lollards written in 1395 asserts that the exorcisms and hallowings carried out by priests are a sort of witchcraft and are incompatible with Christian theology.
In the 15th century, Catholic exorcists were both clerical and lay, since every Christian has the power to command demons and drive them out in the name of Christ.[20]
The Roman Missal promulgated by Pope Paul V contained the Latin exorcism titled De exorcizzandis obsessiis a daemonio ("On the exorcism of the people possessed by Satan").[21]
Reformation
After the Protestant Reformation, Martin Luther abbreviated the Roman ritual used for exorcism.[22] In 1526, the ritual was further abbreviated and the exsufflation was omitted. This form of the Lutheran Ritual for Exorcism was incorporated into the majority of the Lutheran service-books and implemented.[22][23]
Current beliefs and practices
Anglicanism
Church of England
In 1974, the Church of England set up the "deliverance ministry".[24] As part of its creation, every diocese in the country was equipped with a team trained in both exorcism and psychiatry. According to its representatives, most cases brought before it have conventional explanations, and actual exorcisms are quite rare; blessings, though, are sometimes given to people with psychological conditions.[24]
Anglican priests may not perform an exorcism without permission from the Diocesan bishop. An exorcism is not usually performed unless the bishop and his team of specialists (including a psychiatrist and physician) have approved it.
Episcopal Church in the United States
In the Episcopal Church, the Book of Occasional Services discusses provision for exorcism, stating that cases are to be referred to the diocesan bishop for consultation. There is no specific rite, nor an office of "exorcist".[25] Diocesan exorcists usually continue in their role when they have retired from all other church duties.
believe in the existence, malevolence, and power of the Devil and demons. About these things, the New Testament is abundantly clear. We must resist any effort to 'demythologize' the New Testament in order to deny the existence of these evil forces and beings. At the same time, we must recognize quickly that the Devil and demons are not accorded the powers often ascribed to them in popular piety. The Devil is indeed a threat, as Peter made clear when he warned: 'Be sober-minded; be watchful. Your adversary the devil prowls around like a roaring lion, seeking someone to devour.' [1 Peter 5:8] The New Testament is also clear that very real cases of demonic possession were encountered by Jesus and his followers. Jesus liberated afflicted individuals as he commanded the demons to flee, and they obeyed him. Likewise, the Apostle Paul performed exorcisms as he confronted the powers of evil and darkness in his ministry. A closer look at the crucial passages involved reveals no rite of exorcism, however, just the name of Jesus and the proclamation of the Gospel. Likewise, there is no notion of a priestly ministry of ordained exorcists in the New Testament.[26]
As a result of this theology, Baptists see the weapons of "warfare are spiritual, and the powers that the forces of darkness most fear are the name of Jesus, the authority of the Bible, and the power of his Gospel."[27]
The statue of Saint Philip of Agira with the Gospel in his left hand, the symbol of the exorcists, in the May celebrations in his honor at Limina, Sicily
In Catholic dogma, exorcism is a sacramental but not a sacrament, unlike baptism or confession. Unlike a sacrament, exorcism's "integrity and efficacy do not depend ... on the rigid use of an unchanging formula or on the ordered sequence of prescribed actions. Its efficacy depends on two elements: authorization from valid and licit Church authorities, and the faith of the exorcist."[28]
The Catholic Church revised the Rite of Exorcism in January 1999, though the traditional Rite of Exorcism in Latin is allowed as an option. The act of exorcism is considered to be an incredibly dangerous spiritual task. The ritual assumes that possessed persons retain their free will, though the demon may hold control over their physical body, and involves prayers, blessings, and invocations with the use of the document Of Exorcisms and Certain Supplications. In the modern era, Catholic bishops rarely authorize exorcisms, approaching would-be cases with the presumption that mental or physical illness is the more probable cause.
Solemn exorcisms, according to the Canon law of the Church, can be exercised only by an ordained priest or higher prelate, with the express permission of the local bishop, and only after a careful medical examination of the victim to exclude the possibility of mental illness,[29] and in the ritual people cannot in any circumstance be harmed. The Catholic Encyclopedia (1908) enjoined: "Superstition ought not to be confounded with religion, however much their history may be interwoven, nor magic, however white it may be, with a legitimate religious rite." Signs listed in the Roman Ritual as being indicators of possible demonic possession include: speaking foreign or ancient languages of which the possessed has no prior knowledge; supernatural abilities and strength; knowledge of hidden or remote things which the possessed has no way of knowing; an aversion to anything holy; and profuse blasphemy and/or sacrilege.
Fr. Gabriele Amorth, who claimed to have performed 160,000 exorcisms, said exorcists have the ability to detect an evil presence. However, he notes that "they are not always right: their 'feelings' must be checked out." In his examples, they are able to detect the events that caused the demon to enter, or are able to discover the evil object that has cursed the individual. He notes that exorcists "are always humble."[30]
Eastern Orthodoxy
Receive the exorcisms with devotion...Divine exorcisms, borrowed from the Scripture, purify the soul.[31]
The Eastern Orthodox Church has a rich and complex tradition of exorcism,[32] tracing the practice back to Christ and his apostles.[33] Orthodox Christians believe demonic activity is the devil's primary means of corrupting humanity and rebelling against God.[34]Disease, blight, and other maladies are widely associated with satanic influence, which can influence or infest even objects.[35] As a result, exorcisms are quite common, even finding their way in rituals involving the blessing of fields.[35]
All liturgical books, such as the Euchologion, contain prayers of exorcism, namely by St. Basil the Great and St. John Chrysostom.[35][34] The Eastern Orthodox Church lacks a special organization of exorcists akin to the Catholic International Association of Exorcists; rather, all priests are trained and equipped to perform exorcisms.[34] This is due in part to the baptismal liturgy in Eastern Orthodoxy containing an exorcism ritual.[36][37]
Orthodox theology holds that every Christian performs an exorcism through their struggle against sin and evil:
[T]he whole Church, past, present and future, has the task of an exorcist to banish sin, evil, injustice, spiritual death, the devil from the life of humanity ... Both healing and exorcising are ministered through prayers, which spring from faith in God and from love for man ... All the prayers of healing and exorcism, composed by the Fathers of the Church and in use since the third century, begin with the solemn declaration: In Thy Name, O Lord.[38]
Though officially discouraged by the church, many lay Orthodox Christians believe in Vaskania, or the "evil eye", in which malevolent thoughts or intentions (namely jealously and envy) can cause harm and destruction to their recipients.[32] Although the church rejects the power of the evil eye, which it traces to pagan superstition, it recognizes the phenomenon as being morally and spiritually problematic, such that it is a legitimate target for exorcism.[39]
Lutheranism
The Lutheran Church traces the practice of exorcism to the Scriptural claim that Jesus Christ expelled demons with a simple command (Mark 1:23–26; 9:14–29; Luke 11:14–26).[14] The apostles continued the practice with the power and in the name of Jesus (Matthew 10:1; Acts 19:11–16).[14] Contrary to some denominations of Christianity, Lutheranism affirms that the individual, both the believer and the non-believer, can be plagued by demons, based on several arguments, including the one that "just as a believer, whom Jesus Christ has delivered from sin (Romans 6:18), can still be bound by sin in his life, so he can still be bound by a demon in his life."[40]
After the Protestant Reformation, Martin Luther abbreviated the Roman ritual used for exorcism.[22] In 1526, the ritual was further abbreviated and the exsufflation was omitted. This form of the Lutheran Ritual for Exorcism was incorporated into the majority of the Lutheran service-books and implemented.[22][23] According to a Pastoral Handbook of the Lutheran Church,
In general, satanic possession is nothing other than an action of the devil by which, from God's permission, men are urged to sin, and he occupies their bodies, in order that they might lose eternal salvation. Thus bodily possession is an action by which the devil, from divine permission, possesses both pious and impious men in such a way that he inhabits their bodies not only according to activity, but also according to essence, and torments them, either for the punishment or for the discipline and testing of men, and for the glory of divine justice, mercy, power, and wisdom.[22][41]
These pastoral manuals warn that often, symptoms such as ecstasy, epileptic seizures, lethargy, insanity, and a frantic state of mind, are the results of natural causes and should not be mistaken for demon possession.[41] According to the Lutheran Church, primary symptoms that may indicate demon possession and the need of an exorcism include:
The knowledge of secret things, for example, being able to predict the future (Acts 16:16), find lost people or things, or know complex things that one has never learned (e.g., medicine). It is said that fortune-tellers often ask a spirit for help and that this spirit gives them certain powers. In that case, the evil spirit is assisting, not necessarily possessing the person bodily.[41]
The knowledge of languages one has never learned. Just as the devil can bind one's tongue (Luke 11:14), it is reported from the early church as well as the time of the Reformation that certain demon-possessed people could speak languages they had never learned.[41]
Supernatural strength (Mark 5:2-3), far beyond what they previously had or should have considering their sex and size. Much caution in judging demon possession is required. All of the circumstances and symptoms must be taken into consideration. Insanity should not be confused with possession. On the other hand, possession may be taking place even where these symptoms are absent.[41]
The Church lists the secondary symptoms of horrible shouting (Mark 5:5), blasphemy of God and jeering at one's neighbor, deformation of movements (e.g. ferocious movements, facial contortion, immodest laughing, gnashing of teeth, spitting, removing clothes, lacerating self, Mk. 9:20; Lk. 8:27.), inhuman revelry (e.g. when they take food beyond the capability of nature), torment of bodies, unusual injuries of the body and of those nearby, extraordinary motion of bodies (e.g., an elderly man who, being demon-possessed, was able to run as fast as a horse), and forgetfulness of things done.[41] Other symptoms include the corruption of reason in man, which make him like an animal, melancholy, the acceleration of death (Mark 9:18 [ suicide attempts]), and the presence of other supernatural occurrences.[41]
After these determinations have been made, the Church recommends experienced physicians to determine whether there is a medical explanation for the behaviour of the individual.[41] When a true possession is recognized, the poor one is to be committed to the care of a minister of the Church who teaches sound doctrine, is of a blameless life, who does nothing for the sake of filthy lucre, but does everything from the soul.[41] The pastor is then to diligently inquire what kind of life the possessed one led up to this point and lead him or her through the law to the recognition of his sins.[41] After this admonition or consolation has taken place, the works of a natural physician are to be used, who will cleanse the possessed one from malicious fluids with the appropriate medicines.[41] The Pastoral Handbook then states:
Let ardent prayers be poured forth to God, not only by the ministers of the Church, but also by the whole Church. Let these prayers be conditioned, if the liberation should happen for God's glory and the salvation of the possessed person, for this is an evil of the body.
With the prayers let fasting be joined, see Matthew 17:21.
Let the confession of the Christian faith be once required of Him, let him be taught concerning the works of the devil destroyed by Christ, let him be sent back faithfully to this Destroyer of Satan, Jesus Christ, let an exhortation be set up to faith in Christ, to prayers, to penitence.[41]
Mennonites
Many Mennonite colleges and seminaries include training for the ministry of exorcism. The Mennonite minister and exorcist Dean Hochstetler states that powwowing, a practice done by some in the Pennsylvania Dutch community, "brings people under bondage to Satan."[42] On 30 July to 1 August 1987, the "Associated Mennonite Biblical Seminaries, Mennonite Board of Missions (MC) and the Indiana-Michigan Mennonite Conference (MC) sponsored a consultation on 'Bondage and Deliverance'."[43]
Methodism
The British Methodist Church acknowledges three differing views about exorcism: either that it involves "the casting out of an objective power of evil which has gained possession of a person"; "exorcism is a necessary or at least an effective psychological means of reassuring those who believe themselves to be possessed"; or "since demons do not exist … exorcism would be inappropriate, since what is to be dealt with is false belief."[44]:206 According to the first viewpoint, "the authority to exorcise has been given to the Church as one of the ways in which Christ's Ministry is continued in the world."[44]:206 A minister must first consult the District Chair in order to perform an exorcism.[44]:208 The Methodist Church holds that it is of great importance to ensure that the presence and love of Christ is assured to the individual(s) seeking help.[44]:206 In addition, the ministry of the "Bible, prayer and sacraments" should be extended to these individuals as well.[44]:208 A combination of these things has been proven to be effective.[45]
For example, in one particular situation, a Roman Catholic woman believed that her house was haunted, and therefore consulted her priest for assistance. Since he was not available to drive the demons from the woman's home, she contacted a Methodist minister, who exorcised the evil spirits from a room, which was believed to be the source of distress in the house, and celebrated Holy Communion in the same place;[45] following these actions, there was no longer any problem in the house.[45] In another situation, The Reverend Jay Bartlett writes that a young lady who was involved with "drug abuse, self mutilation, severe abuse, mental torment, Satanism, occult activity, communion with demons, and other evils" was exorcised at Mt. Olive Free Methodist Church in Dallas over a period of seven nights, with "anointing oil, the Word of God (the sword of the Spirit), holy water, the sacred symbols of the cross, the blood of Christ, and consecrated materials [being] utilized to drive out the demons."[46]
Oriental Orthodoxy
In the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church, priests intervene and perform exorcisms on behalf of those believed to be afflicted by demons or buda. According to a 2010 Pew Research Center study, 74% of Christians in Ethiopia claim to have experienced or witnessed an exorcism.[47] Demon-possessed persons are brought to a church or prayer meeting.[48] Often, when an ill person has not responded to modern medical treatment, the affliction is attributed to demons.[48] Unusual or especially perverse deeds, particularly when performed in public, are symptomatic of a demoniac.[48] Superhuman strength – such as breaking one's bindings, as described in the New Testament accounts – along with glossolalia are observed in the afflicted.[48] Amsalu Geleta, in a modern case study, relates elements that are common to Ethiopian Christian exorcisms:
It includes singing praise and victory songs, reading from the Scripture, prayer and confronting the spirit in the name of Jesus. Dialogue with the spirit is another important part of the exorcism ceremony. It helps the counselor (exorcist) to know how the spirit was operating in the life of the demoniac. The signs and events mentioned by the spirit are affirmed by the victim after deliverance.[48]
The exorcism is not always successful, and Geleta notes another instance in which the usual methods were unsuccessful, and the demons apparently left the subject at a later time. In any event, "in all cases the spirit is commanded in no other name than the name of Jesus."[48]
Pentecostalism
In the Pentecostal Church, the Charismatic Movement, and other less formalized Christian groups, the exorcism ritual can take many forms and belief structures. The most common of these is the deliverance ceremony. Deliverance differs from the exorcism ceremony in that the Devil may have gotten a foothold into a person's life rather than gaining complete control. If complete control has been gained, a full-fledged exorcism is necessary. However, a "spirit-filled Christian" cannot be possessed, based on their beliefs. Within this belief structure, the reasons for the devil to get a foothold are usually explained to be some sort of deviation from theological doctrine or because of pre-conversion activities (like dealing with the occult).[49][50]
The traditional method for determining if a person needs deliverance is done by having someone present who has the gift of discerning of spirits. This is a gift of the Holy Spirit from 1 Corinthians 12 that allows a person to "sense" in some way an evil presence.[51] While the initial diagnosis is usually uncontested by the congregation, when many people are endowed with this gift in a single congregation, results may vary.[52]
Criticism
Critics of exorcism contend that so-called 'possession' is often, in fact, undiagnosed mental or physical illness and the performance of an exorcism in such cases exacerbates the condition and can even be considered abuse.[53] There have also been cases where exorcists have abused their position for financial gain.[54] Researchers Nicole M. Bauer and J. Andrew Doole argue that by incorporating "medical-psychiatric expertise in the process of diagnosis", exorcists give legitimacy to demonic possession in modern society and present it as "a valid medical healing practice, superior even to medical solutions".[55]
A demon is a malevolent supernatural entity. Historically, belief in demons, or stories about demons, occurs in folklore, mythology, religion, and literature; these beliefs are reflected in media including comics, fiction, film, television, and video games. Belief in demons probably goes back to the Paleolithic age, stemming from humanity's fear of the unknown, the strange and the horrific. In ancient Near Eastern religions and in the Abrahamic religions, including early Judaism and ancient-medieval Christian demonology, a demon is considered a harmful spiritual entity that may cause demonic possession, calling for an exorcism. Large portions of Jewish demonology, a key influence on Christianity and Islam, originated from a later form of Zoroastrianism, and was transferred to Judaism during the Persian era.
Spirit possession is an unusual or an altered state of consciousness and associated behaviors which are purportedly caused by the control of a human body and its functions by spirits, ghosts, demons, angels, or gods. The concept of spirit possession exists in many cultures and religions, including Buddhism, Christianity, Haitian Vodou, Dominican 21 Divisions, Hinduism, Islam, Wicca, and Southeast Asian, African, and Native American traditions. Depending on the cultural context in which it is found, possession may be considered voluntary or involuntary and may be considered to have beneficial or detrimental effects on the host. Spirit possession is often regarded as a reason in support of spirits, deities or demons. In a 1969 study funded by the National Institute of Mental Health, spirit possession beliefs were found to exist in 74% of a sample of 488 societies in all parts of the world, with the highest numbers of believing societies in Pacific cultures and the lowest incidence among Native Americans of both North and South America. As Pentecostal and Charismatic Christian churches move into both African and Oceanic areas, a merger of belief can take place, with demons becoming representative of the "old" indigenous religions, which the Christian ministers attempt to exorcise.
Spiritual warfare is the Christian concept of fighting against the work of preternatural evil forces. It is based on the biblical belief in evil spirits, or demons, that are said to intervene in human affairs in various ways. Although spiritual warfare is a prominent feature of neo-charismatic churches, various other Christian denominations and groups have also adopted practices rooted in the concepts of spiritual warfare, with Christian demonology often playing a key role in these practices and beliefs, or had older traditions of such a concept unrelated to the neo-charismatic movement, such as the exorcistic prayers of the Catholic Church and the various Eastern Orthodox churches.
In Christianity, deliverance ministry refers to groups that perform practices to cleanse people of demons and evil spirits. These groups attribute certain people's physical, psychological, spiritual, and emotional problems to the activities of these evil spirits in their lives. Not all Christians accept the doctrines and practices of these ministries.
In some religions, an exorcist is a person who is believed to be able to cast out the devil or performs the ridding of demons or other supernatural beings who are alleged to have possessed a person, or (sometimes) a building or even an object. An exorcist can be a specially prepared or instructed person including: priest, a nun, a monk, a witch doctor (healer), a shaman, a psychic or a geomancer.
Gabriele Amorth was an Italian Catholic priest of the Paulines and an exorcist for the Diocese of Rome. Amorth, along with five other priests, founded the International Association of Exorcists.
Holy water is water that has been blessed by a member of the clergy or a religious figure, or derived from a well or spring considered holy. The use for cleansing prior to a baptism and spiritual cleansing is common in several religions, from Christianity to Sikhism. The use of holy water as a sacramental for protection against evil is common among Lutherans, Anglicans, Roman Catholics, and Eastern Christians.
Brian N. Connor was an American pastor and exorcist who also taught people about spiritual warfare.
Anna Elisabeth "Anneliese" Michel was a German woman who underwent 67 Catholic exorcism rites during the year before her death. She died of malnutrition, for which her parents and priest were convicted of negligent homicide. She was diagnosed with epileptic psychosis and had a history of psychiatric treatment that proved ineffective.
Exorcism is the religious or spiritual practice of evicting demons, jinns, or other malevolent spiritual entities from a person, or an area, that is believed to be possessed. Depending on the spiritual beliefs of the exorcist, this may be done by causing the entity to swear an oath, performing an elaborate ritual, or simply by commanding it to depart in the name of a higher power. The practice is ancient and part of the belief system of many cultures and religions.
In English translations of the Bible, unclean spirit is a common rendering of Greek pneuma akatharton, which in its single occurrence in the Septuagint translates Hebrew ruaḥ tum'ah.
Buda, in Ethiopian and Eritrean folk religion, is the power of the evil eye and the ability to change into a hyena. Buda is generally believed by the wider society to be a power held and wielded by those in a different social group, for example among the Beta Israel or metalworkers. The belief is also present in Sudan, Tanzania, and among the Berber people in Morocco.
Clara Germana Cele was a South African Christian girl, who in 1906, was said to be possessed by a demon.
In the late 1940s, in the United States, priests of the Catholic Church performed a series of exorcisms on an anonymous boy, documented under the pseudonym "Roland Doe" or "Robbie Mannheim". The 14-year-old boy was alleged to be a victim of demonic possession, and the events were recorded by the attending priest, Raymond J. Bishop. Subsequent supernatural claims surrounding the events were used as elements in William Peter Blatty's 1971 novel The Exorcist. In December 2021, The Skeptical Inquirer reported the purported true identity of Roland Doe/Robbie Mannheim as Ronald Edwin Hunkeler.
Christopher Neil-Smith (1920–1995) was an Anglican priest who was vicar of St Saviour's Hampstead and is best known for his practice of exorcism and his parapsychological interests.
Michael Taylor became notable in England in 1974 as a result of the Ossett murder case and his alleged demonic possession.
The Catholic Church authorizes the use of exorcism for those who are believed to be the victims of demonic possession. In Roman Catholicism, exorcism is a sacramental but not a sacrament, unlike baptism or confession. Unlike a sacrament, exorcism's "integrity and efficacy do not depend ... on the rigid use of an unchanging formula or on the ordered sequence of prescribed actions. Its efficacy depends on two elements: authorization from valid and licit Church authorities, and the faith of the exorcist." The Catechism of the Catholic Church states: "When the Church asks publicly and authoritatively in the name of Jesus Christ that a person or object be protected against the power of the Evil One and withdrawn from his dominion, it is called exorcism."
In Islam, the belief that spiritual entities—particularly, jinn—can possess a person,, is widespread; as is the belief that the jinn and devils can be expelled from the possessed person through exorcism. This practice is called al-'azm or ruqya, and exorcists are called raqi.
Puritan exorcism was the use of exorcism by Puritan ministers. The demonology of Puritans was not unusual within the Early Modern demonology of Protestants, but the use of ritual and prayer in exorcism was more distinctive. The Church of England did not recognise the ritual of exorcism. Some Puritan ministers performed exorcisms; but some leading Puritan writers, such as William Perkins, opposed the ritual, while accepting the underlying theories, for example about witchcraft.
The expression minor exorcism can be used in a technical sense or a general sense. The general sense indicates any exorcism which is not a solemn exorcism of a person believed to be possessed, including various forms of deliverance ministry. This article deals only with the technical sense which specifically refers to certain prayers used with persons preparing to become baptised members of the churches which makes use of such rites. These prayers request God's assistance so that the person to be baptised will be kept safe from the power of Satan or protected in a more general way from temptation.
References
↑ Compare: Mohr, M. D., & Royal, K. D. (2012). "Investigating the Practice of Christian Exorcism and the Methods Used to Cast out Demons", Journal of Christian Ministry, 4, p. 21. Available at: http://journalofchristianministry.org/article/view/10287/7073Archived 2019-01-11 at the Wayback Machine . "[...] results indicate that virtually every exorcist in the sample casts out demons in Jesus' name."
↑ Twelftree, Graham H. (1 October 2007). In the Name of Jesus: Exorcism among Early Christians. Baker Academic. p.129. ISBN978-1-4412-0599-5.
1 2 Stewart, Tyler A. (25 February 2022). The Origin and Persistence of Evil in Galatians. Mohr Siebeck. p.51. ISBN978-3-16-159873-9.
↑ Hammerling, Roy (2 October 2008). A History of Prayer: The First to the Fifteenth Century. Brill Academic Publishers. p.52. ISBN978-90-04-17122-0.
↑ Believe Not Every Spirit: Possession, Mysticism, & Discernment in Early Modern Catholicism. University of Chicago Press. 2007. ISBN978-0-226-76282-1. Retrieved 2007-12-31. ...Johannes Nider and Heinrich Kramer found nothing wrong with the performance of exorcism by laypeople, as long as they did not usurp the clerical rite, which included some prayers only a priest could pronounce. Every Christian, Nider reminded his readers, had the power to command demons and drive them out in the name of Christ, but lay exorcists should be extremely careful not to use unknown characters and charms, and should be aware that the only mode to adjure demons is the imperative and never the supplicative.
↑ "Concerning Exorcism", Book of Occasional Services, Church Publishing.
↑ Mohler, Albert (15 November 2010). "On Exorcism and Exorcists: An Evangelical View". Southern Baptist Convention.{{cite web}}: Missing or empty |url= (help)
↑ Mohler, Albert (15 November 2010). "On Exorcism and Exorcists: An Evangelical View". Southern Baptist Convention. The weapons of our warfare are spiritual, and the powers that the forces of darkness most fear are the name of Jesus, the authority of the Bible, and the power of his Gospel.{{cite web}}: Missing or empty |url= (help)
↑ Martin M. (1976) Hostage to the Devil: The Possession and Exorcism of Five Contemporary Americans. Harper San Francisco. Appendix one "The Roman Ritual of Exorcism" p.459 ISBN0-06-065337-X
1 2 3 The Westminster handbook to patristic theology. Westminster John Knox Press. January 2004. ISBN9780664223960. Retrieved 2007-12-31. In the Orthodox service books the prayers of exorcism attributed to Basil the Great are still in use, for common as well as particular cases of need. In the Latin church the rite of exorcism is now very rarely used, and then only with episcopal permission. The exorcism prayers continue the ancient association of sickness and blight with demonic activity, and the blessings of beasts and fields in the Orthodox service books to this day make a regular pairing of the ideas.
↑ Kriebel, David W. (2007). Powwowing Among the Pennsylvania Dutch: A Traditional Medical Practice in the Modern World. Penn State Press. p.204. ISBN9780271032139. Mennonites of the Lancaster Conference "seem to think that it's black magic and related to the devil and just don't think it's very good." Dean Hochstetler, an Indiana Mennonite minister and exorcist raised in an Amish community, agreed with this sentiment, saying, "Powwowing does one thing well, brings people under bondage to Satan."
↑ Dyck, Cornelius J.; Martin, Dennis D. (1990). The Mennonite encyclopedia: a comprehensive reference work on the Anabaptist-Mennonite movement. Mennonite Brethren Pub. House. ISBN9780836131055. Retrieved 5 May 2014. The Associated Mennonite Biblical Seminaries, Mennonite Board of Missions (MC), Oaklawn Psychiatric Center (all in Elkhart, Ind.), and the Indiana-Michigan Mennonite Conference (MC) sponsored a consultation on "Bondage and Deliverance," July 30-Aug. 1, 1987.
1 2 3 Turner, Martin. "Exorcism in 2006"(PDF). Westminster Methodist Central Hall. Archived from the original(PDF) on 2011-07-17. Retrieved 2009-05-25.
↑ Ford, Christopher; Ford, Nataley (31 January 2010). Demons, Deliverance and Dissociation. Lulu.com. p.154. ISBN9781445276359.
↑ "Ten things we have learnt about Africa". BBC News. April 15, 2010. Retrieved April 15, 2010. In Ethiopia, 74% of Christians say they have experienced or witnessed the devil or evil spirits being driven out of a person
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