Frost weathering

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A rock in Abisko, Sweden, fractured (along existing joints) possibly by mechanical frost weathering or thermal stress (a chullo is shown for scale) Abiskorock.JPG
A rock in Abisko, Sweden, fractured (along existing joints) possibly by mechanical frost weathering or thermal stress (a chullo is shown for scale)
Rock face and downstream exit of the stream (Unnamed) of the cave of the Trou du Diable, Saint-Casimir, Quebec 19950301 09 Trou du Diable.jpg
Rock face and downstream exit of the stream (Unnamed) of the cave of the Trou du Diable, Saint-Casimir, Quebec

Frost weathering is a collective term for several mechanical weathering processes induced by stresses created by the freezing of water into ice. The term serves as an umbrella term for a variety of processes, such as frost shattering, frost wedging, and cryofracturing. The process may act on a wide range of spatial and temporal scales, from minutes to years and from dislodging mineral grains to fracturing boulders. It is most pronounced in high-altitude and high-latitude areas and is especially associated with alpine, periglacial, subpolar maritime, and polar climates, but may occur anywhere at sub-freezing temperatures (between −3 and −8 °C (27 and 18 °F)) if water is present. [1]

Contents

Ice segregation

Certain frost-susceptible soils expand or heave upon freezing as a result of water migrating via capillary action to grow ice lenses near the freezing front. [2] This same phenomenon occurs within pore spaces of rocks. The ice accumulations grow larger as they attract liquid water from the surrounding pores. The ice crystal growth weakens the rocks which, in time, break up. [3] It is caused by the expansion of ice when water freezes, putting considerable stress on the walls of containment. This is actually a very common process in all humid, temperate areas where there is exposed rock, especially porous rocks like sandstone. Sand can often be found just under the faces of exposed sandstone where individual grains have been popped off, one by one. This process is often termed frost spalling. In fact, this is often the most important weathering process for exposed rock in many areas.

Similar processes can act on asphalt pavements, contributing to various forms of cracking and other distresses, which, when combined with traffic and the intrusion of water, accelerate rutting, the formation of potholes, [4] and other forms of pavement roughness. [5]

Volumetric expansion

The traditional explanation for frost weathering was volumetric expansion of freezing water. When water freezes to ice, its volume increases by nine percent. Under specific circumstances, this expansion is able to displace or fracture rock. At a temperature of -22 °C, ice growth is known to be able to generate pressures of up to 207MPa, more than enough to fracture any rock. [6] [7] For frost weathering to occur by volumetric expansion, the rock must have almost no air that can be compressed to compensate for the expansion of ice, which means it has to be water-saturated and frozen quickly from all sides so that the water does not migrate away and the pressure is exerted on the rock. [6] These conditions are considered unusual, [6] restricting it to a process of importance within a few centimeters of a rock's surface and on larger existing water-filled joints in a process called ice wedging .

Not all volumetric expansion is caused by the pressure of the freezing water; it can be caused by stresses in water that remains unfrozen. When ice growth induces stresses in the pore water that breaks the rock, the result is called hydrofracture. Hydrofracturing is favoured by large interconnected pores or large hydraulic gradients in the rock. If there are small pores, a very quick freezing of water in parts of the rock may expel water, and if the water is expelled faster than it can migrate, pressure may rise, fracturing the rock.

Since research in physical weathering begun around 1900, volumetric expansion was, until the 1980s, held to be the predominant process behind frost weathering. [8] This view was challenged in 1985 and 1986 publications by Walder and Hallet. [6] [8] Nowadays researchers such as Matsuoka and Murton consider the "conditions necessary for frost weathering by volumetric expansion" as unusual. [6] However the bulk of recent literature demonstrates that that ice segregation is capable of providing quantitative models for common phenomena while the traditional, simplistic volumetric expansion does not. [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] [15]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Landslide</span> Natural hazard involving ground movement

Landslides, also known as landslips, are several forms of mass wasting that may include a wide range of ground movements, such as rockfalls, mudflows, shallow or deep-seated slope failures and debris flows. Landslides occur in a variety of environments, characterized by either steep or gentle slope gradients, from mountain ranges to coastal cliffs or even underwater, in which case they are called submarine landslides.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Weathering</span> Deterioration of rocks and minerals through exposure to the elements

Weathering is the deterioration of rocks, soils and minerals through contact with water, atmospheric gases, sunlight, and biological organisms. Weathering occurs in situ, and so is distinct from erosion, which involves the transport of rocks and minerals by agents such as water, ice, snow, wind, waves and gravity.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Freezing</span> Phase transition in which a liquid turns into a solid due to a decrease in thermal energy

Freezing is a phase transition where a liquid turns into a solid when its temperature is lowered below its freezing point. In accordance with the internationally established definition, freezing means the solidification phase change of a liquid or the liquid content of a substance, usually due to cooling.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Scree</span> Broken rock fragments at base of cliff

Scree is a collection of broken rock fragments at the base of a cliff or other steep rocky mass that has accumulated through periodic rockfall. Landforms associated with these materials are often called talus deposits. Talus deposits typically have a concave upwards form, where the maximum inclination corresponds to the angle of repose of the mean debris particle size. The exact definition of scree in the primary literature is somewhat relaxed, and it often overlaps with both talus and colluvium.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Frost heaving</span> Upwards swelling of soil during freezing

Frost heaving is an upwards swelling of soil during freezing conditions caused by an increasing presence of ice as it grows towards the surface, upwards from the depth in the soil where freezing temperatures have penetrated into the soil. Ice growth requires a water supply that delivers water to the freezing front via capillary action in certain soils. The weight of overlying soil restrains vertical growth of the ice and can promote the formation of lens-shaped areas of ice within the soil. Yet the force of one or more growing ice lenses is sufficient to lift a layer of soil, as much as 1 foot or more. The soil through which water passes to feed the formation of ice lenses must be sufficiently porous to allow capillary action, yet not so porous as to break capillary continuity. Such soil is referred to as "frost susceptible". The growth of ice lenses continually consumes the rising water at the freezing front. Differential frost heaving can crack road surfaces—contributing to springtime pothole formation—and damage building foundations. Frost heaves may occur in mechanically refrigerated cold-storage buildings and ice rinks.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pingo</span> Mound of earth-covered ice

Pingos are intrapermafrost ice-cored hills, 3–70 m (10–230 ft) high and 30–1,000 m (98–3,281 ft) in diameter. They are typically conical in shape and grow and persist only in permafrost environments, such as the Arctic and subarctic. A pingo is a periglacial landform, which is defined as a non-glacial landform or process linked to colder climates. It is estimated that there are more than 11,000 pingos on Earth. The Tuktoyaktuk peninsula area has the greatest concentration of pingos in the world with a total of 1,350 pingos. There is currently remarkably limited data on pingos.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ice shove</span> Ice pushed onshore due to water movements or wind

An ice shove is a surge of ice from an ocean or large lake onto the shore. Ice shoves are caused by ocean currents, strong winds, or temperature differences pushing ice onto the shore, creating piles up to 12 metres high. Ice shoves can be caused by temperature fluctuations, wind action, or changing water levels and can cause devastation to coastal Arctic communities. Cyclical climate change will also play a role in the formation and frequency of ice shove events; a rise in global temperatures leads to more open water to facilitate ice movement. Low pressure systems will destabilize ice sheets and send them shoreward. Also referred to as "landfast ice", it is an essential component to the coastal sea ice system, including the sediment dynamics. Arctic peoples utilize these ice shoves to travel and hunt. Ringed seals, an important prey for polar bears, are specifically adapted to maintain breathing holes in ice shoves, which lack the same openings usually used by marine mammals in drifting ice packs. The mere fact that the Ringed seal is uniquely adapted to utilizing ice shoves for breathing holes, and that polar bears have adapted to this behaviour for hunting, as well as the fact that the Inupiat have a distinct term for the phenomena, indicates that ice shoves are a regular and continuing phenomena in the Arctic.

In fluid statics, capillary pressure is the pressure between two immiscible fluids in a thin tube, resulting from the interactions of forces between the fluids and solid walls of the tube. Capillary pressure can serve as both an opposing or driving force for fluid transport and is a significant property for research and industrial purposes. It is also observed in natural phenomena.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mars surface color</span> Extraterrestrial geography

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ice-sheet dynamics</span> Technical explanation of ice motion within large bodies of ice

Ice sheet dynamics describe the motion within large bodies of ice such as those currently on Greenland and Antarctica. Ice motion is dominated by the movement of glaciers, whose gravity-driven activity is controlled by two main variable factors: the temperature and the strength of their bases. A number of processes alter these two factors, resulting in cyclic surges of activity interspersed with longer periods of inactivity, on both hourly and centennial time scales. Ice-sheet dynamics are of interest in modelling future sea level rise.

Ice jacking occurs when water permeates a confined space within a structural support or a geological formation, ultimately causing structural fracture when the water freezes and expands. The force from this expansion can damage shorelines, rock faces, and other natural environments. This has the potential to lead to property damage and environmental changes. Ice jacking most commonly refers to shoreline damage caused by lakes freezing, but it has also been applied to geologic engineering and rock erosion. When this occurs within rocks, it is called ice wedging. When this occurs within the soil, it is called frost heaving or ice heaving. It is similar in appearance to, but not to be confused with, ice shove, which is a pile-up of ice on a shoreline.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Frost boil</span> Small circular mounds of fresh soil material formed by frost action and cryoturbation

A frost boil, also known as mud boils, a stony earth circles, frost scars, or mud circles, are small circular mounds of fresh soil material formed by frost action and cryoturbation. They are found typically found in periglacial or alpine environments where permafrost is present, and may damage roads and other man-made structures. They are typically 1 to 3 metres in diameter.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ice lens</span> Ice within soil or rock

Ice lenses are bodies of ice formed when moisture, diffused within soil or rock, accumulates in a localized zone. The ice initially accumulates within small collocated pores or pre-existing crack, and, as long as the conditions remain favorable, continues to collect in the ice layer or ice lens, wedging the soil or rock apart. Ice lenses grow parallel to the surface and several centimeters to several decimeters deep in the soil or rock. Studies from 1990 have demonstrated that rock fracture by ice segregation is a more effective weathering process than the freeze-thaw process which older texts proposed.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Frost flower (sea ice)</span> Ice crystal found growing on young sea ice

Frost flowers are ice crystals commonly found growing on young sea ice and thin lake ice in cold, calm conditions. The ice crystals are similar to hoar frost, and are commonly seen to grow in patches around 3–4 cm in diameter. Frost flowers growing on sea ice have extremely high salinities and concentrations of other sea water chemicals and, because of their high surface area, are efficient releasers of these chemicals into the atmosphere.

Cryosuction is the concept of negative pressure in freezing liquids so that more liquid is sucked into the freezing zone. In soil, the transformation of liquid water to ice in the soil pores causes water to migrate through soil pores to the freezing zone through capillary action.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sea ice growth processes</span>

Sea ice is a complex composite composed primarily of pure ice in various states of crystallization, but including air bubbles and pockets of brine. Understanding its growth processes is important for climate modellers and remote sensing specialists, since the composition and microstructural properties of the ice affect how it reflects or absorbs sunlight.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ice segregation</span> Geological phenomenon

Ice segregation is the geological phenomenon produced by the formation of ice lenses, which induce erosion when moisture, diffused within soil or rock, accumulates in a localized zone. The ice initially accumulates within small collocated pores or pre-existing cracks, and, as long as the conditions remain favorable, continues to collect in the ice layer or ice lens, wedging the soil or rock apart. Ice lenses grow parallel to the surface and several centimeters to several decimeters deep in the soil or rock. Studies between 1990 and present have demonstrated that rock fracture by ice segregation is a more effective weathering process than the freeze-thaw process which older texts proposed.

Brine rejection is a process that occurs when salty water freezes. The salts do not fit in the crystal structure of water ice, so the salt is expelled.

Frost damage is caused by moisture freezing in the construction. Frost damage can occur as cracks, stone splinters and swelling of the material.

J. Gregory Dash (1923–2010) was a physics professor, known for his research on superfluidity, adsorption of gases on smooth surfaces, surface melting, and films on solid surfaces.

References

  1. ↑ Hales, T. C.; Roering, Joshua (2007). "Climatic controls on frost cracking and implications for the evolution of bedrock landscapes". Journal of Geophysical Research: Earth Surface. 112 (F2): F02033. Bibcode:2007JGRF..112.2033H. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.716.110 . doi:10.1029/2006JF000616.
  2. ↑ Taber, Stephen (1930). "The mechanics of frost heaving" (PDF). Journal of Geology. 38 (4): 303–317. Bibcode:1930JG.....38..303T. doi:10.1086/623720. S2CID   129655820. Archived from the original on 2013-04-08. Retrieved 2010-04-20.
  3. ↑ Goudie, A.S.; Viles H. (2008). "5: Weathering Processes and Forms". In Burt T.P.; Chorley R.J.; Brunsden D.; Cox N.J.; Goudie A.S. (eds.). Quaternary and Recent Processes and Forms. Landforms or the Development of Gemorphology. Vol. 4. Geological Society. pp. 129–164. ISBN   9781862392496.
  4. ↑ Eaton, Robert A.; Joubert, Robert H. (December 1989), Wright, Edmund A. (ed.), Pothole Primer: A Public Administrator's Guide to Understanding and Managing the Pothole Problem, Special Report 81-21, U.S. Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory
  5. ↑ Minnesota's Cold Weather Road Research Facility (2007). "Investigation of Low Temperature Cracking in Asphalt Pavements — Phase II (MnROAD Study)". Archived from the original on 2009-02-07.
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 Matsuoka, N.; Murton, J. (2008). "Frost weathering: recent advances and future directions". Permafrost Periglac. Process. 19 (2): 195–210. doi:10.1002/ppp.620. Archived from the original on 2019-12-25.
  7. ↑ T︠S︡ytovich, Nikolaĭ Aleksandrovich (1975). The mechanics of frozen ground. Scripta Book Co. pp. 78–79. ISBN   978-0-07-065410-5.
  8. 1 2 Walder, Joseph S.; Bernard, Hallet (February 1986). "The Physical Weathering of Frost Weathering: Towards a More Fundamental and Unified Perspective". Arctic and Alpine Research. 8 (1): 27–32. doi:10.2307/1551211. JSTOR   1551211.
  9. ↑ "Periglacial weathering and headwall erosion in cirque glacier bergschrunds"; Johnny W. Sanders, Kurt M. Cuffey1, Jeffrey R. Moore, Kelly R. MacGregor and Jeffrey L. Kavanaugh; Geology; July 18, 2012, doi: 10.1130/G33330.1
  10. ↑ Bell, Robin E. (27 April 2008). "The role of subglacial water in ice-sheet mass balance". Nature Geoscience . 1 (5802): 297–304. Bibcode:2008NatGe...1..297B. doi:10.1038/ngeo186.
  11. ↑ Murton, Julian B.; Peterson, Rorik; Ozouf, Jean-Claude (17 November 2006). "Bedrock Fracture by Ice Segregation in Cold Regions". Science . 314 (5802): 1127–1129. Bibcode:2006Sci...314.1127M. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.1010.8129 . doi:10.1126/science.1132127. PMID   17110573. S2CID   37639112.
  12. ↑ Dash, G.; A. W. Rempel; J. S. Wettlaufer (2006). "The physics of premelted ice and its geophysical consequences". Rev. Mod. Phys. 78 (695): 695. Bibcode:2006RvMP...78..695D. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.462.1061 . doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.78.695.
  13. ↑ Rempel, A.W.; Wettlaufer, J.S.; Worster, M.G. (2001). "Interfacial Premelting and the Thermomolecular Force: Thermodynamic Buoyancy". Physical Review Letters . 87 (8): 088501. Bibcode:2001PhRvL..87h8501R. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.87.088501. PMID   11497990.
  14. ↑ Rempel, A. W. (2008). "A theory for ice-till interactions and sediment entrainment beneath glaciers" (PDF). Journal of Geophysical Research. 113 (113=): F01013. Bibcode:2008JGRF..113.1013R. doi: 10.1029/2007JF000870 . Archived (PDF) from the original on 2021-04-13.
  15. ↑ Peterson, R. A.; Krantz , W. B. (2008). "Differential frost heave model for patterned ground formation: Corroboration with observations along a North American arctic transect" (PDF). Journal of Geophysical Research. 113: G03S04. Bibcode:2008JGRG..11303S04P. doi: 10.1029/2007JG000559 . Archived from the original (PDF) on 2020-07-09.
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