Horsfield's tarsier

Last updated

Western tarsier [1]
Bornean Tarsier (Cephalopachus bancanus borneanus) (8067063777).jpg
Cephalopachus bancanus borneanus
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Primates
Suborder: Haplorhini
Family: Tarsiidae
Genus: Cephalopachus
Swainson, 1835
Species:
C. bancanus
Binomial name
Cephalopachus bancanus
(Horsfield, 1821)
Horsfield's Tarsier area.png
Western tarsier range

Horsfeld's tarsier (Cephalopachus bancanus) is the only species of tarsier in the genus Cephalopachus. Named by American naturalist Thomas Horsfield, it is also referred to as western tarsier. The species occurs on Borneo, Sumatra and nearby islands and is, like other members of the group, entirely nocturnal.

Contents

Cephalopachus bancanus saltator Tarsius di Belitung 06.jpg
Cephalopachus bancanus saltator

Taxonomy

Although Horsfeld's tarsier was usually placed in the genus Tarsius with all other living tarsiers, it is quite distinct from the Philippine tarsier and the various tarsiers of Sulawesi and nearby islands; therefore, scientists have placed it in a separate genus, Cephalopachus. [3]

The taxonomy of this species is in doubt, with some subspecies considered unsure. [4] In fact, over 20 years few studies have been done on C. bancanus and a taxonomic revision based upon intensive and systematic field surveys is overdue. The IUCN believes that these subspecies should be treated as distinct and named as separate taxa until more definitive evidence is available. [5] When splitting the species into its own genus, Colin Groves and Myron Shekelle recognized the natunensis population as a distinct subspecies. [3]

There are four recognized subspecies of Horsfeld's tarsier:

Physical description

The pelage coloration ranges from pale-olive or reddish brown to pale or dark grey-brown, possibly varying with age. Based on 12 collected specimens, [6] the range measurement from head to body is 121–154 mm (4.8–6.1 in). Horsfield's tarsier has an extremely long tail which can reach 181 to 224 mm (7.1 to 8.8 in) and is hairless except for tufts of hair at the end. [7] This species has two grooming claws on each foot. The fingers are very long and have pads on the tips. The toes have flattened nails except for the second and third toes on hind feet, which bear claw-like nails. [6] It has large eyes which do not reflect light.[ inconsistent ] The membranous ears are slender and almost bare. The molars of this species have high-cusps and are almost tritubercular. [8] The dental formula of Horsfield's tarsier is 2:1:3:3 on the upper jaw and 1:1:3:3 on the lower jaw. [9]

Habitat and distribution

Horsfield's tarsier is found in Southern Sumatra, Borneo and nearby islands. [6] The Bornean subspecies, C. b. borneanus, is known from many lowland sites in Sabah, Brunei, Sarawak and West Kalimantan and above 900 m (3,000 ft) in the Kelabit uplands in Northern Sarawak. Other records show it from Kutai and Peleben in East Kalimantan and Tanjung Maruwe in Central Kalimantan. [6] This species can live in both primary and secondary forests, and it also lives in forests along the coasts or on the edge of plantations. [10]

Behaviour and ecology

Horsfield's tarsier is a nocturnal species. It sleeps alone during the day in a tangle of vines or creepers at a height of 3.5 to 5 metres (11 to 16 ft). [11] This species prefers to sleep, rest, or remain stationary on perches that are angled 5 degrees from the vertical tree trunks, 1 to 4 cm (0.39 to 1.57 in) in diameter, [12] and it sleeps solitarily. [13] Before sunset, Horsfield's tarsier will wake up and wait 10 to 20 minutes before moving around the understory and spending 1.5 to 2 hours of the night foraging for food. [10] Horsfield's tarsier can be found from ground level up to a height of 7 m (23 ft) or more in the understory. [6]

Horsfield's tarsier in Sarawak Kera hantu Sarawak.jpg
Horsfield's tarsier in Sarawak

This species is carnivorous. It mainly eats insects such as beetles, grasshoppers, katydids, cockroaches, butterflies, moths, praying mantis, ants, phasmids, and cicadas, [10] but also will eat small vertebrates such as bats (Chiroptera) including members of the genus Taphozous , the lesser short-nosed fruit bat ( Cynopterus brachyotis ), and the spotted-winged fruit bat ( Balionycteris maculata ), [10] and snakes, of which poisonous snakes have been found to be consumed. For example, the poisonous snake Maticora intestinalis was found to be hunted for by this species. [10] This species was also found to consume birds, including: spiderhunters, warblers, kingfishers, and pittas. [10] It locates prey primarily by sound and catches the prey with its hands when foraging. [10] The prey items get killed by bites to the back of the neck [10] and the eyes are shut when attacking. [14] It will consume the prey starting with the head and working its way down the body. [10] This species gets water both by drinking from a pool or stream, and by licking drops from bamboo leaves or from trunks of trees when water is running down the bark. [15] Horsfield's tarsier is a host of the acanthocephalan intestinal parasite Moniliformis tarsii . [16]

Horsfield's tarsier, like all tarsiers, is a vertical clinger and leaper known for its extraordinary leaping abilities. An individual will mainly support itself with its feet and the tail exerts enough force to hold the individual in place without using the hands much because of the pads located on the feet. Except when resting, the hands are usually placed no higher than its nose. [12] The hands are only placed higher up to maintain the position of the individual. [12] Other modes of locomotion used by the species include climbing, quadrupedal walking, hopping and "cantilevering." [11]

Cephalopachus bancanus bancanus from Bangka in National Museum of Ireland, Dublin Tarsier - Tarsius tarsius - NHMI.jpg
Cephalopachus bancanus bancanus from Bangka in National Museum of Ireland, Dublin

Horsfield's tarsier is monogamous, with a copulation frequency during estrus of once per night. [17] Courtship calls are performed by the male and he emits 2–3 chirrups while opening and closing the mouth. [17] This call happens within 5 minutes of looking at the female. Once the male gives his courtship call, if the female is receptive, she will perform genital displays to him. [17] If the female is not in estrus, she will emit an agonistic call which is often followed by biting and pushing the male away. [17] Both sexes' calls last on average for 1 second, and the interval between calls is on average 3 seconds. [17]

Infants are born with their eyes open and fully furred and are able to groom themselves. [18] The mother will carry her infant in her mouth and when she forages for food the mother will park the infant on a branch. [19] Infant sounds are mostly clicks: "k", "tk", "ki", or a rapid "kooih" [20] and can be heard when the infant is left alone or is cold. [20] The mother stays in contact with their infants using high-pitched calls. Infants were found to first use the tails as support during resting at 7–10 days. [18] Young leave their range at the onset of puberty, and find their own territory. [18]

Social grooming in this species only occurs between mothers and infants, [21] removing dead skin and parasites by scratching with their toe claws and licking their fur, avoiding their faces. Faces are cleaned by rubbing on branches and it is to reinforce social bonds. [21]

Horsfield's tarsier marks its territory with scents from urine and glandular secretions on a substrate while scratching the surface with its hind-limb toe claws. [17]

Conservation status

The rapid loss of habitat due to forest conversion, oil palm plantations, fire and logging is cause for concern. [22] Additionally, the species is also collected for the illegal pet trade and wrongly considered a pest to agricultural crops. It can suffer, directly and indirectly, from the use of agricultural pesticides.

Horsfield's tarsier is listed as vulnerable in the 2008 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, [2] listed in CITES Appendix II, and protected by law in Indonesia and in Malaysia.

In February 2007, the governments of Brunei, Malaysia, and Indonesia agreed to protect roughly 220,000 km2 (85,000 sq mi) of tropical forest in the "Heart of Borneo" region. Environmental group WWF was particularly active in the establishment of the protected area. [23] In the "Heart of Borneo" project, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) have played a role in promoting the critical initiative and in assisting the transboundary nations in its conceptualization, design, and implementation. The transboundary nations are to improve biodiversity conservation in Bornean production forests, and to ensure that such forests are not simply converted to agricultural land-uses such as oil-palm plantations after logging. [24]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tarsier</span> Family of dry nosed primates

Tarsiers are haplorhine primates of the family Tarsiidae, which is, itself, the lone extant family within the infraorder Tarsiiformes. Although the group was, prehistorically, more globally widespread, all of the species living today are restricted to Maritime Southeast Asia, predominantly being found in Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia and the Philippines.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tarsiiformes</span> Group of primates

Tarsiiformes are a group of primates that once ranged across Europe, northern Africa, Asia, and North America, but whose extant species are all found in the islands of Southeast Asia. Tarsiers are the only living members of the infraorder; other members of Tarsiidae include the extinct Tarsius eocaenus from the Eocene, and Tarsius thailandicus from the Miocene. Two extinct genera, Xanthorhysis and Afrotarsius, are considered to be close relatives of the living tarsiers, and are generally classified within Tarsiiformes, with the former grouped within family Tarsiidae, and the latter listed as incertae sedis (undefined). Omomyids are generally considered to be extinct relatives, or even ancestors, of the living tarsiers, and are often classified within Tarsiiformes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Philippine tarsier</span> Species of primate

The Philippine tarsier, known locally as mawumag in Cebuano and other Visayan languages, and magô in Waray, is a species of tarsier endemic to the Philippines. It is found in the southeastern part of the archipelago, particularly on the islands of Bohol, Samar and Leyte. It is a member of the approximately 45-million-year-old family Tarsiidae, whose name is derived from its elongated "tarsus" or ankle bone. Formerly a member of the genus Tarsius, it is now listed as the only member of the genus Carlito, a new genus named after the conservationist Carlito Pizarras.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sangihe tarsier</span> Species of primate

The Sangihe tarsier, also known as Sangihe Island tarsier, is a small primate found on Sangir Island, which is located about 200 kilometers north-east of the island of Sulawesi in Indonesia. In 2008 a population of the Sangihe tarsier was determined to be a distinct species, the Siau Island tarsier. Locally in the Sangihe dialect of Sangir language, tarsiers are called Senggasi or Higo.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Peleng tarsier</span> Species of primate

The Peleng tarsier, or the Peleng Island tarsier, is a nocturnal primate found on the island of Peleng, just east of Sulawesi, Indonesia. In western Peleng, the animal is called Lakasinding, while in the east, Siling.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dian's tarsier</span> Species of primate

Dian's tarsier, also known as the Diana tarsier, is a nocturnal primate endemic to central Sulawesi, Indonesia. Its head-body length is 11.5–12 centimetres (4.5–4.7 in) and it has a tail of 22 centimetres (8.7 in). Dian's tarsier lives in rainforests. It was formerly called T. dianae, but that has been shown to be a junior synonym.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pygmy tarsier</span> Species of primate

The pygmy tarsier, also known as the mountain tarsier or the lesser spectral tarsier, is a nocturnal primate found in central Sulawesi, Indonesia, in an area with lower vegetative species diversity than the lowland tropical forests. The pygmy tarsier was believed to have become extinct in the early 20th century. Then, in 2000, Indonesian scientists accidentally killed one while trapping rats. The first pygmy tarsiers seen alive since the 1920s were found by a research team led by Dr. Sharon Gursky and Ph.D. student Nanda Grow from Texas A&M University on Mount Rore Katimbo in Lore Lindu National Park in August 2008. The two males and single female were captured using nets, and were radio collared to track their movements. As the first live pygmy tarsiers seen in 80-plus years, these captures dispelled the belief among some primatologists that the species was extinct.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Spectral tarsier</span> Species of mammal

Spectral tarsier or Selayar tarsier is a species of tarsier found on the island of Selayar in Indonesia. It is apparently less specialized than the Philippine tarsier or Horsfield's tarsier; for example, it lacks adhesive toes. It is the type species for the genus Tarsius. While its range used to also include the population on nearby southwestern Sulawesi, this population has been reclassified as a separate species, Tarsius fuscus. Some of the earlier research published on Tarsius spectrum refers to the taxon that was recently reclassified and elevated to a separate species, the Gursky's spectral tarsier.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lariang tarsier</span> Species of primate

The Lariang tarsier is a recently described tarsier occurring in the western part of the central core of Sulawesi. Six museum specimens of this species are known, two of which have been misidentified as the pygmy tarsier before their correct identity came out. This species has been named after the Lariang River, an important river in the part of Sulawesi where this species occurs.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Siau Island tarsier</span> Species of primate

The Siau Island tarsier is a species of tarsier from the tiny volcanic island of Siau in Indonesia. The T. tumpara species is one of 14 species and 7 subspecies in the tarsier family called "Tarsiidae". They belong to the Haplorrhini suborder, known as the "dry-nosed" primates. The tarsier's eyes are so big that they do not move in its socket and they are almost as big as its brain. Locally in the Siau dialect of Sangir language, the tarsiers are called Tumpara. The name differs from the Sangihe dialect which called tarsiers, Senggasi or Higo, these names are used for the Sangihe tarsier instead.

<i>Tarsius</i> Genus of primates

Tarsius is a genus of tarsiers, small primates native to islands of Southeast Asia. Until 2010, all tarsier species were typically assigned to this genus, but a revision of the family Tarsiidae restored the generic status of Cephalopachus and created a new genus Carlito.

Wallace's tarsier, Tarsius wallacei, is a species of Sulawesi tarsier. It is found in the forests of what is referred to geologically as the neck of Sulawesi where there are two separate populations. It is a small brown arboreal primate of the infraorder Tarsiiformes less than 15 cm (6 in) long.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Makassar tarsier</span> Species of primate

The Makassar tarsier, also known locally as Balao Cengke, is a species of tarsier. Its range is in Indonesia in the southwestern peninsula of the island of Sulawesi, South Sulawesi, near Makassar. At one point the taxon was downgraded to a junior synonym of the spectral tarsier. However, when that species' range was restricted to the population on a single island near Sulawesi, this nomen was resurrected to contain the remainder of that species.

<i>Nycticebus kayan</i> Species of primate

The Kayan River slow loris is a strepsirrhine primate and a species of slow loris that is native to the northern and central highland region of the island of Borneo. The species was originally thought to be a part of the Bornean slow loris (N. menagensis) population until 2013, when a study of museum specimens and photographs identified distinct facial markings, which helped to differentiate it. It is distinguished by the high contrast of its black and white facial features, as well as the shape and width of the stripes of its facial markings.

<i>Nycticebus bancanus</i> Species of primate

The Bangka slow loris is a strepsirrhine primate and a species of slow loris that is native to southwestern Borneo and the island of Bangka. Originally considered a subspecies or synonym of the Bornean slow loris (N. menagensis), it was promoted to full species status in 2013 when a study of museum specimens and photographs identified distinct facial markings, which helped to differentiate it as a separate species. It is distinguished by the crimson red fur on its back, light-colored facial features, as well as the shape and width of the stripes of its facial markings.

<i>Nycticebus borneanus</i> Species of primate

Nycticebus borneanus, the Bornean slow loris, is a strepsirrhine primate and a species of slow loris that is native to central south Borneo in Indonesia. Formerly considered a subspecies or synonym of N. menagensis, it was promoted to full species status in 2013 when a study of museum specimens and photographs identified distinct facial markings, which helped to differentiate it as a separate species. It is distinguished by its dark, contrasting facial features, as well as the shape and width of the stripes of its facial markings.

The Jatna’s tarsier, also known locally as Mimito, is a species of tarsier endemic to the northern Sulawesi, Gorontalo, Indonesia. Previously classified together with the Spectral tarsier, this species was reclassified and elevated as a separate species in 2017 due to their distinct and separate acoustic duet calls between males and females.

Niemitz's tarsier is a species of tarsier. It was named in honor of the German evolutionary biologist Carsten Niemitz in 2019. The species is found on an archipelago off the coast of Sulawesi called the Togian Islands. In Indonesian it is called bunsing, tangkasi or podi while Niemitz's tarsier has been suggested as the English common name.

References

  1. ↑ Groves, C. P. (2005). Wilson, D. E.; Reeder, D. M. (eds.). Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference (3rd ed.). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 127. ISBN   0-801-88221-4. OCLC   62265494.
  2. 1 2 Shekelle, M.; Yustian, I. (2020). "Cephalopachus bancanus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . 2020: e.T21488A17976989. doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-3.RLTS.T21488A17976989.en . Retrieved 13 November 2021.
  3. 1 2 Groves, C.; Shekelle, M. (2010). "The Genera and Species of Tarsiidae". International Journal of Primatology. 31 (6): 1071–1082. doi:10.1007/s10764-010-9443-1. S2CID   21220811.
  4. ↑ Brandon-Jones, D.; Eudey, A.A.; Geissmann, T.; Groves, C.P.; Melnick D.J., Morales; J.C., Shekelle, M. & Stewart, C.B (2004). "Asian Primate Classification". International Journal of Primatology. 25 (1): 97–164. doi:10.1023/B:IJOP.0000014647.18720.32. S2CID   29045930.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  5. ↑ Shekelle, M.; Yustian, I. (2021). "Cephalopachus bancanus ssp. bancanus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . 2021: e.T39762A17992163. doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2021-1.RLTS.T39762A17992163.en . Retrieved 13 November 2021.
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 Payne, J.; Francis, C. M. & Phillipps, K (1994). A Field guide to the Mammals of Borneo. Petaling Jaya: The Sabah Society.
  7. ↑ Sussman, R.W (1999). Primate Ecology and Social Structure: Vol. 1 Lorises, Lemurs and Tarsiers. Pearson Custom Publishing.
  8. ↑ Crompton, R.H.; Savage, R. & Spears, I.R (1998). "The mechanics of food reduction in Tarsius bancanus: Hard-object feeder, soft-object feeder or both?". Folia Primatologica. 69 (suppl 1): 41–59. doi:10.1159/000052698. PMID   9595687. S2CID   24464173.
  9. ↑ Nowak, R.M (1999). Walker's Primates of the World . Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN   0-8018-6251-5.
  10. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Niemitz, C. (1979). "Outline of the behavior of Tarsius bancanus". In G.A. Doyle; R.D. Martin (eds.). The Study of Prosimian Behavior. New York: Academic Press.
  11. 1 2 Crompton, R.H.; Andau, P.M (1986). "Locomotion and Habitat Utilization in Free-ranging Tarsius bancanus: A Preliminary Report". Primates. 27 (3): 337–355. doi:10.1007/BF02382075. S2CID   25836867.
  12. 1 2 3 Niemitz, C (1984a). "Locomotion and posture of Tarsius bancanus". In C. Niemitz (ed.). Biology of Tarsiers. Stuttgart: Gustav Fischer Verlag. ISBN   0-89574-182-2.
  13. ↑ Crompton, R.H.; Andau, P.M (1987). "Ranging, activity rhythms, and sociality in free-ranging Tarsius bancanus: A preliminary report". International Journal of Primatology. 8 (1): 43–71. doi:10.1007/BF02737113. S2CID   39920648.
  14. ↑ Fogden, M.P.L (1974). "A preliminary field study of the western tarsier, Tarsius bancanus Horsefield". In R.D. Martin; G.A. Doyle; A.C. Walker (eds.). Prosimian Biology. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press.
  15. ↑ Niemitz, C (1984d). "Synecological relationships and feeding behaviour of the genus Tarsius". In C. Niemitz (ed.). Biology of Tarsiers. Stuttgart: Gustav Fischer Verlag. ISBN   0-89574-182-2.
  16. ↑ Deveaux, Timothy P.; Schmidt, Gerald D.; Krishnasamy, M. (1988). "Two New Species of Moniliformis (Acanthocephala: Moniliformidae) from Malaysia". The Journal of Parasitology. 74 (2): 322–5. doi:10.2307/3282462. JSTOR   3282462. PMID   3128654.
  17. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Wright, P.C.; Toyama, L.M. & Simons, E.L (1986). "Courtship and Copulation in Tarsius bancanus". Folia Primatologica. 46 (3): 142–148. doi:10.1159/000156247. PMID   3100401.
  18. 1 2 3 Roberts, M (1994). "Growth, development, and parental care in the Western tarsier (Tarsius bancanus) in captivity: Evidence for a "slow" life-history and nonmonogamous mating system". International Journal of Primatology. 15 (1): 1–28. doi:10.1007/BF02735232. S2CID   7462413.
  19. ↑ Haring, D.M.; Wright, P.C. & Simons, E.L (1985). "Social behaviors of Tarsius syrichta and Tarsius bancanus". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 66: 179. doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330660204.
  20. 1 2 Niemitz, C (1984b). "Vocal communication of two tarsier species (Tarsius bancanus and Tarsius spectrum)". In C. Niemitz (ed.). Biology of Tarsiers. Stuttgart: Gustav Fischer Verlag. ISBN   0-89574-182-2.
  21. 1 2 Niemitz, C (1984c). "An investigation and review of the territorial behaviour and social organisation of the genus Tarsius". In C. Niemitz (ed.). Biology of Tarsiers. Stuttgart: Gustav Fischer Verlag. ISBN   0-89574-182-2.
  22. ↑ Yustian, I.; Merker, S. & Supriatna, J (2008). "RELATIVE POPULATION DENSITY OF Tarsius dianae IN MAN-INFLUENCED HABITATS". Asian Primates Journal. 1 (1).
  23. ↑ Butler, R. A (2006). "Borneo" . Retrieved January 27, 2009.
  24. ↑ World Wildlife Fund. (2007). Resolution concerning the ‘Heart of Borneo’. Association for Tropical Biology and Conservation.
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