Religious text

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A scripture of Islam, The Quran - National Museum, New Delhi, India Holy Quran - National Museum, New Delhi.jpg
A scripture of Islam, The Quran - National Museum, New Delhi, India
The Rigveda (Vedic chant) manuscript in Devanagari, a scripture of Hinduism, dated 1500-1000 BCE. It is the oldest religious texts in any Indo-European language. Rigveda MS2097.jpg
The Rigveda (Vedic chant) manuscript in Devanagari, a scripture of Hinduism, dated 1500–1000 BCE. It is the oldest religious texts in any Indo-European language.
A page from Codex Vaticanus in the Greek Old and New Testament Codex Vaticanus B, 2Thess. 3,11-18, Hebr. 1,1-2,2.jpg
A page from Codex Vaticanus in the Greek Old and New Testament

Religious texts, including scripture, are texts which various religions consider to be of central importance to their religious tradition. They often feature a compilation or discussion of beliefs, ritual practices, moral commandments and laws, ethical conduct, spiritual aspirations, and admonitions for fostering a religious community.

Contents

Within each religion, these sacred texts are revered as authoritative sources of guidance, wisdom, and divine revelation. They are often regarded as sacred or holy, representing the core teachings and principles that their followers strive to uphold. [1] [2] [3]

Etymology and nomenclature

According to Peter Beal, the term scripture – derived from "scriptura" (Latin) – meant "writings [manuscripts] in general" prior to the medieval era, then became "reserved to denote the texts of the Old and New Testaments of the Bible". [4] Beyond Christianity, according to the Oxford World Encyclopedia, the term "scripture" has referred to a text accepted to contain the "sacred writings of a religion", [5] while The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions states it refers to a text "having [religious] authority and often collected into an accepted canon". [6] In modern times, this equation of the written word with religious texts is particular to the English language, and is not retained in most other languages, which usually add an adjective like "sacred" to denote religious texts.

Some religious texts are categorized as canonical, some non-canonical, and others extracanonical, semi-canonical, deutero-canonical, pre-canonical or post-canonical. [7] The term "canon" is derived from the Greek word "κανών", "a cane used as a measuring instrument". It connotes the sense of "measure, standard, norm, rule". In the modern usage, a religious canon refers to a "catalogue of sacred scriptures" that is broadly accepted to "contain and agree with the rule or canon of a particular faith", states Juan Widow. [8] The related terms such as "non-canonical", "extracanonical", "deuterocanonical" and others presume and are derived from "canon". These derived terms differentiate a corpus of religious texts from the "canonical" literature. At its root, this differentiation reflects the sects and conflicts that developed and branched off over time, the competitive "acceptance" of a common minimum over time and the "rejection" of interpretations, beliefs, rules or practices by one group of another related socio-religious group. [9] The earliest reference to the term "canon" in the context of "a collection of sacred Scripture" is traceable to the 4th-century CE. The early references, such as the Synod of Laodicea, mention both the terms "canonical" and "non-canonical" in the context of religious texts. [10]

History of religious texts

One of the oldest known religious texts is the Kesh Temple Hymn of ancient Sumer, [11] [12] a set of inscribed clay tablets which scholars typically date around 2600 BCE. [13] The Epic of Gilgamesh from Sumer, although only considered by some scholars as a religious text, has origins as early as 2150 BCE, [14] and stands as one of the earliest literary works that includes various mythological figures and themes of interaction with the divine. [15] The Rigveda, a scripture of Hinduism, is dated 1500 BCE. It is one of the oldest known complete religious texts that has survived into the modern age. [16] [17]

There are many possible dates given to the first writings which can be connected to Talmudic and Biblical traditions, the earliest of which is found in scribal documentation of the 8th century BCE, [18] followed by administrative documentation from temples of the 5th and 6th centuries BCE, [19] with another common date being the 2nd century BCE. [19]

High rates of mass production and distribution of religious texts did not begin until the invention of the printing press in 1440, [20] before which all religious texts were hand written copies, of which there were relatively limited quantities in circulation.

Main scriptures of religions

Islam

Quran: The Quran is the most important scripture in Islam. According to conventional Islamic belief, the Qurʾān was revealed by Allah (the only one GOD) through the angel Gabriel to the Prophet Muhammad in the West Arabian towns Mecca and Medina beginning in 610 and ending with Muhammad’s death in 632 CE. [21] [22] [23] It consists of 30 sections (Juz) and 114 chapters (Surah). It is the primary and most fundamental source of Islamic law. [24] [25]

Hadith: Hadith, also known as Sunnah, is the second most important source of knowledge in Islam. [26] After the Quran, this branch of knowledge is given the most importance in Islam. Hadith or Sunnah is the words, actions and approvals of Prophet Muhammad. In a word, everything related to his prophetic life is Sunnah. It is the second primary source of Islamic law. [27] [28] [29] [30] [31]

Hikmah: Hikmah is a word that refers to the acceptance and application or creation of any subject of knowledge or science by verifying its truth or reliability through reasoning, strategy, thought and research. The Quran and Hadith encourage and approve of Hikmah. Islam encourages Muslims to reach appropriate or correct decisions through thought and research. Here, collective decisions or original research or decisions are also accepted on the basis of merit. Through this, the acceptance, promotion or discovery of anything beneficial is allowed. However, innovation, i.e. the discovery, support or propagation of new forms of worship or methods of worship and superstitions is strictly prohibited in Islam. [32] [33] [34] [35]

Previous Heavenly Books: In Islam, it is obligatory to believe in all previous heavenly books along with the Quran. Believing in over 100 previous heavenly books, including the Torah, Psalms and Gospel is one of the most fundamental aspects of Islam. [36] Apart from this, there is no prohibition in Islam to accept the previous divine signs existing in the world if they are not contradictory to the Quran and authentic Hadith. However, Muslims believe that the previous heavenly books are not currently in their original form on earth, and that previous nations have made additions, deletions or changes to them for personal gain. Moreover, the Quran, Hadith and Hikmah are considered sufficient in Islam for guiding the life of humanity.

Christianity

Bible: The Bible is the holy book of Christianity. It is divided into two testaments: the Old Testament and the New Testament. [37]

Judaism

Torah: The Torah, also known as the Tawrat, is the holy book of Judaism. It is believed by Muslims, Jews and Christians to have been revealed by God to Moses. [38]

Hinduism

Hinduism has a vast collection of scriptures, but some of the most important include the Vedas, the Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita, the Puranas and the Ramayana. The Vedas are the oldest Hindu scriptures and are considered to be a revelation from God. The Upanishads are philosophical texts that deal with the nature of reality and the soul. The Bhagavad Gita is a poem that is part of the Mahabharata, one of the two major Hindu epics. It tells the story of a prince who must fight a war against his own cousins. The Puranas are a collection of myths and legends that tell the story of the Hindu gods and goddesses.

Buddhism

The Tripitaka is the central text of Buddhism. It is a collection of teachings attributed to the Buddha. The Tripitaka is divided into three parts: the Vinaya Pitaka, which deals with monastic discipline; the Sutta Pitaka, which contains the Buddha's teachings; and the Abhidharma Pitaka, which is a philosophical text.

Confucianism

The Analects is a collection of sayings attributed to Confucius, a Chinese philosopher who lived in the 5th and 6th centuries BCE. The Analects focus on ethics, government, and social relations.

Taoism

The Tao Te Ching is the central text of Taoism. It is a short book that deals with the concept of the Tao, which is the ultimate reality or principle of the universe.

Jainism

Agamas: The Agamas are a collection of Jain scriptures that are believed to have been transmitted orally by Mahavira, the 24th Tirthankara (spiritual leader) of Jainism. Most of the original Agamas are lost, but their teachings are preserved in later Jain texts.

Tattvartha Sutra: This text, written by Acaranga Muni, is considered one of the most important foundational texts of Jainism. It summarizes Jain philosophy and ethics.

Zoroastrianism

Avesta: The Avesta is the primary scripture of Zoroastrianism. It is believed to have been revealed by the prophet Zoroaster to humanity. However, much of the Avesta has been lost over time, and the surviving texts are fragmentary.

Sikhism

Guru Granth Sahib: Also referred to as the Adi Granth, this is the central religious text of Sikhism. It is believed to be the embodiment of the ten Sikh Gurus and their teachings. The Guru Granth Sahib is considered the eternal Guru and spiritual guide for Sikhs.

Authority of religious texts

The relative authority of religious texts develops over time and is derived from the ratification, enforcement, and its use across generations. Some religious texts are accepted or categorized as canonical, some non-canonical, and others extracanonical, semi-canonical, deutero-canonical, pre-canonical or post-canonical. [7]

"Scripture" (or "scriptures") is a subset of religious texts considered to be "especially authoritative", [39] [40] revered and "holy writ", [41] "sacred, canonical", or of "supreme authority, special status" to a religious community. [42] [43] The terms sacred text and religious text are not necessarily interchangeable in that some religious texts are believed to be sacred because of the belief in some theistic religions such as the Abrahamic religions that the text is divinely or supernaturally revealed or divinely inspired, or in non-theistic religions such as some Indian religions they are considered to be the central tenets of their eternal Dharma . In contrast to sacred texts, many religious texts are simply narratives or discussions pertaining to the general themes, interpretations, practices, or important figures of the specific religion.

In some religions (e.g. Christianity), the canonical texts include a particular text (Bible) but is "an unsettled question", according to Eugene Nida. In others (Hinduism, Buddhism), there "has never been a definitive canon". [44] [45] While the term scripture is derived from the Latin scriptura, meaning "writing", most sacred scriptures of the world's major religions were originally a part of their oral tradition, and were "passed down through memorization from generation to generation until they were finally committed to writing", according to Encyclopaedia Britannica . [41] [46] [47]

In Islam, the Sunnah are the traditions and practices of the Islamic prophet Muhammad that constitute a model for Muslims to follow. The sunnah is what all the Muslims of Muhammad's time evidently saw and followed and passed on to the next generations. [48] According to classical Islamic theories, [49] the sunnah are documented by hadith (the verbally transmitted record of the teachings, deeds and sayings, silent permissions or disapprovals attributed to Muhammad), and alongside the Quran (the book of Islam) are the divine revelation ( wahy ) delivered through Muhammad [49] that make up the primary sources of Islamic law and belief/theology. [50] [51] However sects of Islam differ on which hadiths (if any) should be accepted as canonical (see Criticism of hadith).

Religious texts also serve a ceremonial and liturgical role, particularly in relation to sacred time, the liturgical year, the divine efficacy and subsequent holy service; in a more general sense, its performance.[ citation needed ]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hadith</span> Collections of sayings and teachings of Muhammad

Hadith or Athar refers to what most Muslims and the mainstream schools of Islamic thought believe to be a record of the words, actions, and the silent approval of the Islamic prophet Muhammad as transmitted through chains of narrators. In other words, the ḥadīth are attributed reports about what Muhammad said and did.

In Islam, sunnah, also spelled sunna, are the traditions and practices of the Islamic prophet Muhammad that constitute a model for Muslims to follow. The sunnah is what all the Muslims of Muhammad's time evidently saw and followed and passed on to the next generations. According to classical Islamic theories, the sunnah are documented by hadith, and alongside the Quran are the divine revelation (wahy) delivered through Muhammad that make up the primary sources of Islamic law and belief/theology. Differing from Sunni classical Islamic theories are those of Shia Muslims, who hold that Imams interpret the sunnah, and Sufi who hold that Muhammad transmitted the values of sunnah "through a series of Sufi teachers".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Quran</span> Central religious text of Islam

The Quran, also romanized Qur'an or Koran, is the central religious text of Islam, believed by Muslims to be a revelation from God. It is organized in 114 chapters which consist of individual verses. Besides its religious significance, it is widely regarded as the finest work in Arabic literature, and has significantly influenced the Arabic language.

Injil is the Arabic name for the Gospel of Jesus (Isa). This Injil is described by the Qur'an as one of the four Islamic holy books which was revealed by God, the others being the Zabur, the Tawrat, and the Qur'an itself. The word Injil is also used in the Qur’an, the hadith and early Muslim documents to refer to both a book and revelations made by God to Jesus.

Naskh is an Arabic word usually translated as "abrogation". In tafsir, or Islamic legal exegesis, naskh recognizes that one rule might not always be suitable for every situation. In the widely recognized and "classic" form of naskh, one ḥukm "ruling" is abrogated to introduce an exception to the general rule, but the text the ḥukm is based on is not repealed.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Torah in Islam</span> Islamic view of the Torah

The Tawrat, also romanized as Tawrah or Taurat, is the Arabic-language name for the Torah within its context as an Islamic holy book believed by Muslims to have been given by God to the prophets and messengers amongst the Children of Israel. In the Qur'an, the word 'Tawrat' occurs eighteen times. When referring to traditions from the Tawrat, Muslims have not only identified it with the Pentateuch, but also with the other books of the Hebrew Bible as well as with Talmudic and Midrashic writings.

Indeed, We sent down the Torah, in which was guidance and light. The prophets who submitted [to God] judged by it for the Jews, as did the rabbis and scholars by that with which they were entrusted of the Scripture of God, and they were witnesses thereto. So do not fear the people but fear Me, and do not exchange My verses for a small price [i.e., worldly gain]. And whoever does not judge by what God has revealed - then it is those who are the disbelievers.

The history of the Quran, the holy book of Islam, is the timeline and origin of the written compilations or manuscripts of the Quran, based on historical findings. It spans several centuries, and forms an important major part of the early history of Islam.

Ahl al-Ḥadīth is an Islamic school of Sunni Islam that emerged during the 2nd and 3rd Islamic centuries of the Islamic era as a movement of hadith scholars who considered the Quran and authentic hadith to be the only authority in matters of law and creed. They were known as "Athari" for championing traditionalist theological doctrines which rejected rationalist approaches and advocated a strictly literalist reading of Scriptures. Its adherents have also been referred to as traditionalists and sometimes traditionists. The traditionalists constituted the most authoritative and dominant bloc of Sunni orthodoxy prior to the emergence of mad'habs during the fourth Islamic century.

Various sources of Islamic Laws are used by Islamic jurisprudence to elaborate the body of Islamic law. In Sunni Islam, the scriptural sources of traditional jurisprudence are the Holy Qur'an, believed by Muslims to be the direct and unaltered word of God, and the Sunnah, consisting of words and actions attributed to the Islamic prophet Muhammad in the hadith literature. In Shi'ite jurisprudence, the notion of Sunnah is extended to include traditions of the Imams.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hindu–Islamic relations</span> Overview of relations between Hinduism and Islam

Interactions between Muslims and Hindus began in the 7th century, after the advent of the former in the Arabian Peninsula. These interactions were mainly by trade throughout the Indian Ocean. Historically, these interactions formed contrasting patterns in northern and southern India. While there is a history of conquest and domination in the north, Hindu-Muslim relations in Kerala and Tamil Nadu have been peaceful. However, historical evidence has shown that violence had existed by the year 1700 A.D.

Miracles of Muhammad are miraculous happenings attributed to the Islamic prophet Muhammad.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Islamic holy books</span> Religious scriptures seen by Muslims as holy

Islamic holy books are certain religious scriptures that are viewed by Muslims as having valid divine significance, in that they were authored by God (Allah) through a variety of prophets and messengers, including those who predate the Quran. Among the group of religious texts considered to be valid revelations, the three that are mentioned by name in the Quran are the Tawrat, received by prophets and messengers amongst the Children of Israel; the Zabur (Psalms), received by David; and the Gospel, received by Jesus. Additionally, the Quran mentions God's revealing of the Scrolls of Abraham and the Scrolls of Moses.

The Scrolls of Moses are an ancient body of scripture mentioned twice in the Quran, as well as in Surah Al-Aʻlā and Surah An-Najm. They are part of the religious scriptures of Islam.

The Quran states that several prior writings constitute holy books given by God to the prophets and messengers amongst the Children of Israel, in the same way the Quran was revealed to Muhammad. These include the Tawrat, believed by Muslims to have been given by God to the prophets and messengers amongst the Children of Israel, the Zabur revealed to David (Dawud); and the Injil revealed to Jesus (Isa).

Prophets in Islam are individuals in Islam who are believed to spread God's message on Earth and serve as models of ideal human behaviour. Some prophets are categorized as messengers, those who transmit divine revelation, most of them through the interaction of an angel. Muslims believe that many prophets existed, including many not mentioned in the Quran. The Quran states: "And for every community there is a messenger." Belief in the Islamic prophets is one of the six articles of the Islamic faith.

The Shafi'i school or Shafi'ism is one of the four major schools of Islamic jurisprudence within Sunni Islam. It was founded by the Muslim scholar, jurist, and traditionist al-Shafi'i, "the father of Muslim jurisprudence", in the early 9th century.

Quranism is an Islamic movement that holds the belief that the Quran is the only valid source of religious belief, guidance and law in Islam. Quranists believe that the Quran is clear, complete, and that it can be fully understood without recourse to the hadith and sunnah. Therefore, they use the Quran itself to interpret the Quran, an exegetical principle known as tafsir al-Qur'an bi al-Qur'an.

Canonized Islamic scripture are texts which Muslims believe were revealed by God through various prophets throughout humanity's history—specifically the Quran and Hadith. Muslims believe the Quran to be the final revelation of God to mankind, and a completion and confirmation of previous scriptures. It was believed to have been revealed to the Islamic prophet Muhammad from 620 CE to 632 CE, and canonized in an official, unified text during the caliphate of Rashidun Uthman, around 650 CE.

References

  1. ↑ Charles Elster (2003). "Authority, Performance, and Interpretation in Religious Reading: Critical Issues of Intercultural Communication and Multiple Literacies". Journal of Literacy Research. 35 (1): 667–670., Quote: "religious texts serve two important regulatory functions: on the group level, they regulate liturgical ritual and systems of law; at the individual level, they (seek to) regulate ethical conduct and direct spiritual aspirations."
  2. ↑ Eugene Nida (1994). "The Sociolinguistics of Translating Canonical Religious Texts". TTR: Traduction, Terminologie, Rédaction. 7 (1). Érudit: Université de Montréal: 195–197., Quote: "The phrase "religious texts" may be understood in two quite different senses: (1) texts that discuss historical or present-day religious beliefs and practices of a believing community and (2) texts that are crucial in giving rise to a believing community."
  3. ↑ Ricoeur, Paul (1974). "Philosophy and Religious Language". The Journal of Religion. 54 (1). University of Chicago Press: 71–85. doi:10.1086/486374. S2CID   144691132.
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  7. 1 2 Lee Martin McDonald; James H. Charlesworth (5 April 2012). 'Noncanonical' Religious Texts in Early Judaism and Early Christianity. A&C Black. pp. 1–5, 18–19, 24–25, 32–34. ISBN   978-0-567-12419-7.
  8. ↑ Juan Carlos Ossandón Widow (2018). The Origins of the Canon of the Hebrew Bible. Brill Academic. pp. 22–27. ISBN   978-90-04-38161-2.
  9. ↑ Gerbern Oegema (2012). Lee Martin McDonald and James H. Charlesworth (ed.). 'Noncanonical' Religious Texts in Early Judaism and Early Christianity. A&C Black. pp. 18–23 with footnotes. ISBN   978-0-567-12419-7.
  10. ↑ Gallagher, Edmon L.; Meade, John D. (2017). The Biblical Canon Lists from Early Christianity: Texts and Analysis. Oxford University Press. pp. xii–xiii. ISBN   978-0-19-879249-9.
  11. ↑ Kramer, Samuel (1942). "The Oldest Literary Catalogue: A Sumerian List of Literary Compositions Compiled about 2000 B.C.". Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research. 88 (88): 10–19. doi:10.2307/1355474. JSTOR   1355474. S2CID   163898367.
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  13. ↑ Enheduanna; Meador, Betty De Shong (1 August 2009). Princess, priestess, poet: the Sumerian temple hymns of Enheduanna. University of Texas Press. ISBN   9780292719323.
  14. ↑ Stephanie Dalley (2000). Myths from Mesopotamia: Creation, The Flood, Gilgamesh, and Others. Oxford University Press. pp. 41–45. ISBN   978-0-19-953836-2.
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  19. 1 2 Jaffee, Martin S. (19 April 2001). Torah in the Mouth: Writing and Oral Tradition in Palestinian Judaism 200 BCE-400 CE. Oxford University Press. ISBN   9780198032236.
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  30. ↑ "What is Hadith". ahadith.co.uk. Retrieved 22 April 2024.
  31. ↑ "Hadith". obo. Retrieved 22 April 2024.
  32. ↑ Manzoor, Basit (24 September 2023). "What is the Definition of Hikma in the Quran?". SeekersGuidance. Retrieved 24 April 2024.
  33. ↑ "The Concept of Hikmah (Wisdom) in Islam: Literal and Quranic Meaning of Hikmah – Part 1 | Kaniz Fatma, New Age Islam". www.newageislam.com. Retrieved 24 April 2024.
  34. ↑ Khalifa, Abd al-Karim (January 2000). "The Meaning of Hikma in Sūrat al-Baqara (Q.2:129)". Journal of Qur'anic Studies. 2 (1): 180–197. doi:10.3366/jqs.2000.2.1.180. ISSN   1465-3591.
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  36. ↑ "Six Major Beliefs In Islam | The Basics to Islam" . Retrieved 17 April 2024.
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  39. ↑ Charles Elster (2003). "Authority, Performance, and Interpretation in Religious Reading: Critical Issues of Intercultural Communication and Multiple Literacies". Journal of Literacy Research. 35 (1): 669–670.
  40. ↑ John Goldingay (2004). Models for Scripture. Clements Publishing Group. pp. 183–190. ISBN   978-1-894667-41-8.
  41. 1 2 The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica (2009). Scripture. Encyclopaedia Britannica.
  42. ↑ Wilfred Cantwell Smith (1994). What is Scripture?: A Comparative Approach. Fortress Press. pp. 12–14. ISBN   978-1-4514-2015-9.
  43. ↑ William A. Graham (1993). Beyond the Written Word: Oral Aspects of Scripture in the History of Religion. Cambridge University Press. pp. 44–46. ISBN   978-0-521-44820-8.
  44. ↑ Eugene Nida (1994), The Sociolinguistics of Translating Canonical Religious Texts, vol. 7, pp. 194–195
  45. ↑ Thomas B. Coburn (1984). ""Scripture" in India: Towards a Typology of the Word in Hindu Life". Journal of the American Academy of Religion. 52 (3). Oxford University Press: 435–459. doi:10.1093/jaarel/52.3.435. JSTOR   1464202.
  46. ↑ William A. Graham (1993). Beyond the Written Word: Oral Aspects of Scripture in the History of Religion. Cambridge University Press. pp. ix, 5–9. ISBN   978-0-521-44820-8.
  47. ↑ Carroll Stuhlmueller (1958). "The Influence of Oral Tradition Upon Exegesis and the Senses of Scripture". The Catholic Biblical Quarterly. 20 (3): 299–302. JSTOR   43710550.
  48. ↑ Qazi, M. A.; El-Dabbas, Mohammed Saʿid (1979). A Concise Dictionary of Islamic Terms. Lahore, Pakistan: Kazi Publications. p. 65.
  49. 1 2 Brown, Rethinking Tradition in Modern Islamic Thought, 1996: p.7
  50. ↑ Abou El Fadl, Khaled (22 March 2011). "What is Shari'a?". ABC Religion and Ethics. Retrieved 20 June 2015.
  51. ↑ "What is the Difference Between Quran and Sunnah?". Ask a Question to Us. Retrieved 20 June 2015.

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