Achaemenid royal inscriptions

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The Behistun inscription, the longest and perhaps the most famous of the Achaemenid royal inscriptions. Behistun inscription reliefs.jpg
The Behistun inscription, the longest and perhaps the most famous of the Achaemenid royal inscriptions.

The Achaemenid royal inscriptions are the surviving inscriptions in cuneiform script from the Achaemenid Empire, dating from the 6th to 4th century BCE (reigns of Cyrus II to Artaxerxes III). These inscriptions are primary sources for the history of the empire, along with archaeological evidence and the administrative archives of Persepolis. However, scholars are reliant on Greek sources (such as Herodotus) to reconstruct much of Achaemenid history. [1]

Contents

The Achaemenid royal inscriptions differ from earlier Assyrian and Babylonian inscriptions in their multilingualism, rhetorical style and their structure. [2] The inscriptions are mostly trilingual – in Old Persian, Elamite and Babylonian, which use two separate scripts (Babylonian and Elamite use variants of the same cuneiform). When they appear together, the privileged position is usually occupied by the Old Persian inscription: at the top when arranged vertically, and in the middle when arranged horizontally. [2]

The initial decipherment of cuneiform was based on the Achaemenid royal inscriptions from Persepolis, later supplemented with the Behistun Inscription. Scholars deciphered the Old Persian cuneiform script first, followed by the Babylonian and Elamite language versions using the trilingual inscriptions. [3]

Overview

Map of the locations of the Achaemenid royal inscriptions; modern boundaries are shown.

The trilingual inscriptions illustrate the multi-ethnic complexity of the Achaemenid Empire: Old Persian is an Indo-European language, Babylonian is a Semitic language, and Elamite is a language isolate. The three versions of the trilingual inscriptions are not exact translations of each other. Sometimes passages are added in one language version that do not appear in the other two. There are also differences in details when the text refers to specific people: the Old Persian version often emphasizes the rulers, the Elamite version the locations, and the Babylonian version the subject peoples, reflecting the different social classes that spoke each language. [2]

A few Achaemenid inscriptions are instead written in Egyptian hieroglyphs, for example in stelae found near the Suez Canal. Other hieroglyphic text has been found on crockery and pottery vessels that were made in Egypt but excavated at Persepolis, Susa, and possibly Babylonia. A statue of Darius I was also made in Egypt but brought to Susa. [2]

Imperial Aramaic is conspicuous by its absence from the inscriptions, despite it being the official language of the empire in later periods. There are a few isolated Aramaic characters on Achaemenid objects such as seals, weights and coins. The only royal inscription in Aramaic was found at Elephantine in Upper Egypt and is a copy of the Behistun inscription. [2]

In 1958 Richard Hallock compiled statistics on the length and numbers of the Elamite language versions of the royal inscriptions. The Behistun inscription is the longest inscription, whilst the other inscriptions are shorter and more repetitive. 44 Elamite texts are from the reign of Darius I, followed by 13 from that of Xerxes I, while the reigns of Artaxerxes I and Artaxerxes II have 7 texts each. Only two Elamite texts are from the reign of Cyrus II: the inscriptions CMa and CMc. [4]

Most of the inscriptions have been found in the Achaemenid heartlands (in Pasargadae, Persepolis, Naqsh-e Rostam) with smaller numbers in the wider empire (at Susa, Bisutun, Ganjnameh, Babylon). The only inscriptions outside of Iran are the Xerxes I inscription at Van, in eastern Anatolia, and some from the period of Cyrus II. [2]

The majority of the texts are found on royal monuments and statues, and many motifs are repeated. The inscriptions of Darius I were replicated by his successors, often with only small differences. Scholars have suggested that this was intended to emphasize the empire's continuity. [5]

Decipherment

Inscription XPc at Persepolis, on the southern side of the Palace of Darius. It is repeated three times, known as XPca, XPcb and XPcc. XPca and XPcc are facing each other towards the top of the antas (large pillars) on the left and right respectively; both have 15 lines in Old Persian, 14 lines in Elamite and 13 lines in Babylonian. XPcb is on the bottom wall alongside the carvings of Achaemenid soldiers, with 25 lines for each language version; Old Persian is in the middle, Elamite is on the right and Babylonian on the left. Tachar Persepolis Iran.JPG
Inscription XPc at Persepolis, on the southern side of the Palace of Darius. It is repeated three times, known as XPca, XPcb and XPcc. XPca and XPcc are facing each other towards the top of the antas (large pillars) on the left and right respectively; both have 15 lines in Old Persian, 14 lines in Elamite and 13 lines in Babylonian. XPcb is on the bottom wall alongside the carvings of Achaemenid soldiers, with 25 lines for each language version; Old Persian is in the middle, Elamite is on the right and Babylonian on the left.

The decipherment of the Old Persian cuneiform script of the Achaemenids played a crucial role in the decipherment of the Babylonian and Elamite language versions and other cuneiform scripts in the Near East. [3] This decipherment was initially via names, or royal names, and the Avesta, which contains the Old Persian language in a developed form. The decipherment of the Achaemenid inscriptions can be divided into three phases. [7]

In a first step, the writing direction was found out and that the Achaemenid inscriptions are three different scripts with a common text. In 1620, García de Silva Figueroa dated the inscriptions of Persepolis to the Achaemenid period, identified them as Old Persian, and concluded that the ruins were the ancient residence of Persepolis. In 1621, Pietro della Valle specified the direction of writing from left to right. In 1762, Jean-Jacques Barthélemy found that an inscription in Persepolis resembled that found on a brick in Babylon. Carsten Niebuhr made the first copies of the inscriptions of Persepolis in 1778 and settled on three different types of writing, which subsequently became known as Niebuhr I, II and III. He was the first to discover the sign for a word division in one of the scriptures. Oluf Gerhard Tychsen was the first to list 24 phonetic or alphabetic values for the characters in 1798. [7]

The second phase, in which a first decipherment took place and correct values for a significant number of characters could be found, was initiated by Georg Friedrich Grotefend. He was the initial decipherer of Old Persian cuneiform. He was followed by Antoine-Jean Saint-Martin in 1822 and Rasmus Christian Rask in 1823, who was the first to decipher the name Achaemenides and the consonants m and n. Eugène Burnouf identified the names of various satrapies and the consonants k and z in 1833–1835. Christian Lassen contributed significantly to the grammatical understanding of the Old Persian language and the use of vowels. The decipherers used the short trilingual inscriptions from Persepolis and the inscriptions from Ganjnāme for their work. [7]

In a final step, the decipherment of the Behistun inscription was completed by Henry Rawlinson and Edward Hincks. Edward Hincks discovered that Old Persian is partly a syllabary. [7]

List of inscriptions

Designations

Achaemenid family tree Achaemenid lineage.jpg
Achaemenid family tree

The designations or abbreviations of the Achaemenid royal inscriptions are based on the system introduced by Roland Grubb Kent in 1953. [8] Manfred Mayrhofer (1978), Alireza Shapour Shahbazi (1985) and Rüdiger Schmitt (2000) have expanded and modified it. Rüdiger Schmitt's 2009 Die altpersischen Inschriften der Achaimeniden is considered the modern reference work. [9]

The first letter of an inscription's designation does not designate the ruler or author, but the king whom the text expressly names, often right at the beginning in the nominative. The second capital letter designates the place of discovery and the third letter is an index used by scholars to distinguish multiple inscriptions from the same place. [8]

Summary

The Achaemenid Royal Inscriptions online (ARIo) Project, part of the Open Richly Annotated Cuneiform Corpus, currently contains 175 composite texts with 11,712 words. [10]

A 2021 list of the Achaemenid royal inscriptions counted 179 texts, from Darius I to Artaxerxes III. [11] This categorization places the "non-authentic" inscriptions (i.e. inscriptions are "genuine" and date from the Achaemenid period, but do not come from the king who is listed at the beginning of the inscriptions) under the king during whose reign they were produced. The best-known "non-authentic" inscriptions are AmHa and AsHa from Hamadan. [12]

Languages Darius I Xerxes I Artaxerxes I Darius II Artaxerxes II Artaxerxes III Total
DXAD2A2A3
QuadrilingualPersian, Babylonian, Elamite, Egyptian115521
TrilingualPersian, Babylonian, Elamite6224114193
BilingualPersian, Elamite44
Persian, Babylonian112
MonolingualPersian1810246343
Babylonian42118
Elamite347
Aramaic11
9352105145179

List

NameKingDiscovery dateDiscovery placeLanguagePublication
AmHaAriaramnes1930 Hamadan Old Persian [13]
AsHaArsames1920HamadanOld Persian [14]
Cyrus ACyrus II1850 Uruk Babylonian [15]
Cyrus B1923 Ur Babylonian [16]
Cyrus Cylinder 1879BabylonBabylonian [17]
CMa1812PasargadaeOld Persian, Elamite, Babylonian [18]
CMb1928PasargadaeOld Persian, Elamite, Babylonian [19]
CMc1928PasargadaeOld Persian, Elamite, Babylonian [20]
Zendan inscription1952PasargadaeOld Persian, Elamite [21]
CM-Fragment1961–1963PasargadaeOld Persian [22]
DB Darius I1835BehistunOld Persian, Elamite, Babylonian [23]
DB Aram 1906–1908 Elephantine Aramaic [24]
DEa 1851–1854 Elvend Old Persian, Elamite, Babylonian [25]
DHa1926HamadanOld Persian, Elamite, Babylonian [26]
DNa 1843 Naqsch-e Rostam Old Persian, Elamite, Babylonian [27]
DNb1843Naqsch-e RostamOld Persian, Elamite, Babylonian [28]
DNc1848Naqsch-e RostamOld Persian, Elamite, Babylonian [29]
DNd1848Naqsch-e RostamOld Persian, Elamite, Babylonian [30]
DNe1848Naqsch-e RostamOld Persian, Elamite, Babylonian [31]
DNf2001Naqsch-e RostamOld Persian, Elamite, Babylonian [32]
DPa1737PersepolisOld Persian, Elamite, Babylonian [33]
DPb1704PersepolisOld Persian, Elamite, Babylonian [34]
DPc1664–1670PersepolisOld Persian, Elamite, Babylonian [35]
DPd1774–1778PersepolisOld Persian [36]
DPe1774–1778PersepolisOld Persian [37]
DPf1774–1778PersepolisElamite [38]
DPg1774–1778PersepolisBabylonian [39]
DPh1933PersepolisOld Persian, Elamite, Babylonian [40]
DSaa1969/1970SusaBabylonian [41]
DSab1972SusaOld Persian, Elamite, Babylonian, Egyptian [42]
DSf1900SusaOld Persian, Elamite, Babylonian [43]
DSq1929SusaOld Persian [44]
DSz1969/1970SusaElamite [45]
XEa Xerxes I1851–1854 Elvend Old Persian, Elamite, Babylonian [46]
XPa1839PersepolisOld Persian, Elamite, Babylonian [47]
XPb1711PersepolisOld Persian, Elamite, Babylonian [48]
XPc1711PersepolisOld Persian, Elamite, Babylonian [49]
XPd1851–1854PersepolisOld Persian, Elamite, Babylonian [50]
XVa 1827 Van Old Persian, Elamite, Babylonian [51]
Artaxerxes I
Darius II
A2HaArtaxerxes II1886 Hamadan Old Persian, Elamite, Babylonian [52]
A2Hb1926HamadanOld Persian [53]
A2Hc1948HamadanOld Persian [54]
A2HdHamadan
A2Sa1849–1852SusaOld Persian, Elamite, Babylonian [55]
A2Sb1849–1852SusaOld Persian, Elamite, Babylonian [56]
A2Sc1890SusaOld Persian [57]
A2Sd1849–1852SusaOld Persian, Elamite, Babylonian [58]
A3PaArtaxerxes III1851–1854PersepolisOld Persian [59]
A3Pb1930PersepolisOld Persian, Elamite, Babylonian [60]

Forgeries

Phial with forged inscription F 10 Phiale (shallow drinking vessel) inscribed in Old Persian cuneiform with phrase regarding king Artaxerxes I, Achaemenid period, 5th century BC, silver - Arthur M. Sackler Gallery - DSC05818.JPG
Phial with forged inscription F 10

Forgeries from the Near East have been known since the 19th century. But it is only since the 1930s that products from Iran have flooded the art market, after illegal excavations in western Iran increased enormously. The actual "counterfeiting boom" took place after World War II until the Islamic Revolution. Fake art items were inscribed to increase the value of the item cause or to convey a supposed authenticity. The inscriptions were often copied from books in order to use them in abridged or modified form. They can be found on metal tablets, clay and stone tablets, figurative and similar objects, weapons, gems and seals. In total, Rüdiger Schmitt recorded 27 forged inscriptions. [12]

In 1953, Roland Grubb Kent listed the known forged inscriptions ("spurious inscriptions"), gave them the name Spurium (abbreviation Spur.) and provided them with an index (spur. a–h). Manfred Mayrhofer added to the list in 1978 (i-k). Rüdiger Schmitt gave them new names in 2007: F for forged and N for replica. [12]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Behistun Inscription</span> Ancient multilingual stone inscription in Iran

The Behistun Inscription is a multilingual Achaemenid royal inscription and large rock relief on a cliff at Mount Behistun in the Kermanshah Province of Iran, near the city of Kermanshah in western Iran, established by Darius the Great. It was important to the decipherment of cuneiform, as it is the longest known trilingual cuneiform inscription, written in Old Persian, Elamite, and Babylonian.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Persepolis</span> Ceremonial capital of the Achaemenid Empire

Persepolis was the ceremonial capital of the Achaemenid Empire. It is situated in the plains of Marvdasht, encircled by southern Zagros mountains, Fars province of Iran. It is one of the key Iranian Cultural heritages. UNESCO declared the ruins of Persepolis a World Heritage Site in 1979.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Elam</span> Ancient pre-Iranian civilization between 3200 and 539 BC

Elam was an ancient civilization centered in the far west and southwest of modern-day Iran, stretching from the lowlands of what is now Khuzestan and Ilam Province as well as a small part of southern Iraq. The modern name Elam stems from the Sumerian transliteration elam(a), along with the later Akkadian elamtu, and the Elamite haltamti. Elamite states were among the leading political forces of the Ancient Near East. In classical literature, Elam was also known as Susiana, a name derived from its capital Susa.

Old Persian is one of two directly attested Old Iranian languages and is the ancestor of Middle Persian. Like other Old Iranian languages, it was known to its native speakers as ariya (Iranian). Old Persian is close to both Avestan and the language of the Rig Veda, the oldest form of the Sanskrit language. All three languages are highly inflected.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Elamite language</span> Extinct language of the ancient Elamites of Iran

Elamite, also known as Hatamtite and formerly as Susian, is an extinct language that was spoken by the ancient Elamites. It was recorded in what is now southwestern Iran from 2600 BC to 330 BC. Elamite works disappear from the archeological record after Alexander the Great entered Iran, but the spoken language might have survived until the 11th century AD. Elamite is generally thought to have no demonstrable relatives and is usually considered a language isolate. The lack of established relatives makes its interpretation difficult.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Achaemenes</span> Progenitor of the Achaemenid dynasty

Achaemenes was the progenitor of the Achaemenid dynasty of rulers of Persia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Persian column</span>

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Georg Friedrich Grotefend</span> German epigraphist and philologist (1775–1853)

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Naqsh-e Rostam</span> Ancient necropolis in Fars Province, Iran

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Old Persian cuneiform</span> Semi-alphabetic cuneiform script

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Persepolis Administrative Archives</span> Clay administrative archives found in Persepolis dating to the Achaemenid Persian Empire

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Achaemenid architecture</span> Historical architecture style

Achaemenid architecture includes all architectural achievements of the Achaemenid Persians manifesting in construction of spectacular cities used for governance and inhabitation, temples made for worship and social gatherings, and mausoleums erected in honor of fallen kings. Achaemenid architecture was influenced by Mesopotamian, Assyrian, Egyptian, Elamite, Lydian, Greek and Median architecture. The quintessential feature of Persian architecture was its eclectic nature with foreign elements, yet producing a unique Persian identity seen in the finished product. Achaemenid architecture is academically classified under Persian architecture in terms of its style and design.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kul-e Farah</span> Archaeological site in Iran

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tomb of Darius the Great</span> Achaemenid tomb at Naqsh-e Rostam, Iran

The tomb of Darius the Great (or Darius I) is one of the four tombs for Achaemenid kings at the historical site of Naqsh-e Rostam, located about 12 kilometres (7.5 mi) northwest of Persepolis in Iran. They are all situated at a considerable height above ground-level.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Heidemarie Koch</span> German Iranologist (1943–2022)

Heidemarie Koch was a German Iranologist.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Caylus vase</span> Egyptian alabaster jar

The Caylus vase is an Egyptian alabaster jar dedicated in the name of the Achaemenid king Xerxes I in Egyptian hieroglyphs and Old Persian cuneiform, which in 1823 played an important role in the modern decipherment of cuneiform and the decipherment of ancient Egyptian scripts.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Decipherment of cuneiform</span>

The decipherment of cuneiform began with the decipherment of Old Persian cuneiform between 1802 and 1836.

References

Footnotes

  1. ↑ Howe, T.; Müller, S.; Stoneman, R. (2016). Ancient Historiography on War and Empire. Oxbow Books. p. 26. ISBN   978-1-78570-302-7 . Retrieved 2023-03-26.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Matthew W. Stolper: Achämenid Languages and Inscriptions. In: John E. Curtis, Nigel Tallis (Hrsg.): Forgotten Empire. The World of Ancient Persia. University of California Press, Berkeley/ Los Angeles 2005, S. 18–24.
  3. 1 2 Mousavi, Ali (2012-03-14). "VI. PERSEPOLIS AND THE PUZZLE OF THE CUNEIFORM INSCRIPTIONS". Persepolis. DE GRUYTER. pp. 113–122. doi:10.1515/9781614510338.113. In this way, the exploration of the ancient ruins at Persepolis proved to be one important key to the development of historical and archaeological studies in the first half of the nineteenth century.
  4. ↑ Richard Hallock: Notes on Achaemenid Elamite. In: Journal of Near Eastern Studies. Band 17, 1958, S. 256.
  5. ↑ Morris, I.; Scheidel, W. (2009). The Dynamics of Ancient Empires: State Power from Assyria to Byzantium. Oxford Series in Ecology and Evolution Series. Oxford University Press, USA. p. 99. ISBN   978-0-19-537158-1 . Retrieved 2023-03-26.
  6. ↑ "XPc". Livius. 2020-09-24. Retrieved 2023-03-30.
  7. 1 2 3 4 Sayce, A.H. (2019). The Archaeology of the Cuneiform Inscriptions. Cambridge Library Collection - Archaeology. Cambridge University Press. ISBN   978-1-108-08239-6 . Retrieved 2023-03-19.
  8. 1 2 Roland Grubb Kent: Old Persian: Grammar, Texts, Lexicon. 2. revidierte Auflage (=American Oriental Series. Band 33). New Haven 1953 (babel.hathitrust.org, Digitalisat)
  9. ↑ Rüdiger Schmitt: Die altpersischen Inschriften der Achaimeniden. Editio minor mit deutscher Übersetzung. Reichert, Wiesbaden 2009. (Achaemenid royal inscriptions at the Internet Archive )
  10. ↑ "Achaemenid Royal Inscriptions online (ARIo) Project". The ARIo Project, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität, Historisches Seminar - Alte Geschichte. Retrieved 2023-04-29.
  11. ↑ Tavernier, Jan. "A list of the Achaemenid Royal Inscriptions by language". Phoenix (in French). 67. ISSN   0031-8329 . Retrieved 2023-03-25.
  12. 1 2 3 Schmitt, Rüdiger (2007). Pseudo-Altpersische Inschriften: Inschriftenfälschungen und moderne Nachbildungen in altpersischer Keilschrift (in German). Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. ISBN   978-3-7001-3964-5.
  13. ↑ Herzfeld 1930, Schaeder 1930, Schaeder 1931, Herzfeld 1931a, Herzfeld 1932, Brandenstein 1932, Schaeder 1935, Herzfeld 1937, Herzfeld 1938, Sen 1941, Kent 1946, Kent 1953, Lecoq 1997, Schweiger 1998, Schmitt 1999a, Schmitt 2007, Schmitt 2009
  14. ↑ Kent 1946, Kent 1953, Lecoq 1997, Schweiger 1998, Schmitt 1999, Schmitt 2007, Schmitt 2009
  15. ↑ Loftus 1850, Weißbach 1911a, Schott 1930, Schaudig 2001, Waters 2018
  16. ↑ Gadd 1928, Walker 1981, Schaudig 2001, Waters 2018
  17. ↑ Rawlinson 1880, Nies/Keiser 1920, Finkel 2013, Schaudig 2018
  18. ↑ Morier 1812, Rawlinson 1847, Weißbach 1894, Weißbach 1911a, Kent 1953, Borger/Hinz 1959, Nylander 1967, Stronach 1978, Schaudig 2001
  19. ↑ Herzfeld 1929, Herzfeld 1938, Kent 1953, Hallock 1958, Borger/Hinz 1959, Nylander 1967, Stronach 1978
  20. ↑ Herzfeld 1929, Herzfeld 1938, Kent 1953, Borger/Hinz 1959, Nylander 1967, Stronach 1978, Cool Root 1979, Schaudig 2001
  21. ↑ Sami 1956, Borger/Hinz 1959, Cameron 1967, Stronach 1978, Mayrhofer 1978, Schaudig 2001
  22. ↑ Stronach 1965, Lecoq 1974, Stronach 1978, Mayrhofer 1978, Schaudig 2001
  23. ↑ Rawlinson 1846, Rawlinson 1849, Rawlinson 1851, Norris 1855, Jackson 1903, Jackson 1906, King/Thompson 1907, Weißbach 1890, Weißbach 1911a, Cameron 1951, Kent 1953, Voigtlander 1956, Cameron 1960, Vallat 1977, Voigtlander 1978, Greenfield/Porten 1982, Borger/Hinz 1984, Grillot-Susini/Herrenschmidt/Malbran-Labat 1993, Porten 1993, Malbran-Labat 1994, Lecoq 1997, Seidl 1999, Bae 2001, Kuhrt 2007, Schmitt 2009
  24. ↑ Mitchell, Christine (2017). "Berlin Papyrus P. 13447 and the Library of the Yehudite Colony at Elephantine". Journal of Near Eastern Studies. 76 (1). University of Chicago Press: 139–147. doi:10.1086/690226. ISSN   0022-2968. Archived from the original on 30 September 2023. Retrieved 26 August 2023.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
  25. ↑ Flandin/Coste 1851–1854, Schulz 1840, Brugsch 1862/1863, de Morgan 1894–1905, Jackson 1906, Weißbach 1911a, Schaeder 1931, Sen 1941, Kent 1953, Vallat 1977, Lecoq 1997, Schweiger 1998, Schmitt 2007, Schmitt 2009
  26. ↑ Herzfeld 1926, Smith 1926, Weißbach 1927, Kent 1931b, Brandenstein 1932, Herzfeld 1938, Kent 1953, Frye 1963, Lecoq 1997, Schweiger 1998, Kuhrt 2007, Schmitt 2009
  27. ↑ Westergaard 1844, Lassen 1845, Westergaard 1845, Hitzig 1847, Rawlinson 1847, Flandin/Coste 1851–1854, Norris 1855, Spiegel 1862, Kern 1869, Oppert 1870, Bezold 1882, Stolze 1882, Weißbach 1911a, Weißbach 1911b, Friedrich 1928, Kent 1939, Kent 1953, Schmidt 1970, Vallat 1977, Grillot-Susini 1987, Lecoq 1997, Schweiger 1998, Schmitt 2000, Kuhrt 2007, Schmitt 2009
  28. ↑ Weißbach 1911a, Weißbach 1911b, Herzfeld 1938, Kent 1939, Kent 1953, Hinz 1969, Schmidt 1970, Vallat 1977, Sims-Williams 1981, Lecoq 1997, Schweiger 1998, Schmitt 2000, Kuhrt 2007, Schmitt 2009
  29. ↑ Rawlinson 1850, Rawlinson 1851, Norris 1855, Perrot/Chipiez 1890, Maspero 1899, Weißbach 1911a, Weißbach 1911b, Kent 1939, Kent 1953, Schmidt 1970, Vallat 1977, Lecoq 1997, Schweiger 1998, Schmitt 2000, Henkelman 2003, Schmitt 2009
  30. ↑ Rawlinson 1850, Rawlinson 1851, Norris 1855, Weißbach 1911a, Weißbach 1911b, Kent 1939, Kent 1953, Schmidt 1970, Borger 1972, Vallat 1977, Lecoq 1997, Schweiger 1998, Schmitt 2000, Borger 2000, Henkelman 2003, Schmitt 2009
  31. ↑ Rawlinson 1850, Norris 1855, Oppert 1859, Dieulafoy 1885, Weißbach 1911a, Weißbach 1911b, Kent 1953, Schmidt 1970, Vallat 1977, Mayrhofer 1978, Lecoq 1997, Schweiger 1998, Schmitt 1999a, Kuhrt 2007, Schmitt 2009
  32. ↑ Delshad/Doroodi 2019
  33. ↑ De Bruyn 1737, Niebuhr 1774–1778, Flandin/Coste 1851–1854, Westergaard 1845a, Westergaard 1845b, Tolman 1908, Weißbach 1911a, Schmidt 1953, Kent 1953, Shabazi 1985, Lecoq 1997, Schweiger 1998, Schmitt 2009
  34. ↑ De Bruyn 1737, Gobineau 1864, Dieulafoy 1890, Weißbach 1890, Weißbach 1911a, Benveniste 1951, Kent 1953, Shabazi 1985, Lecoq 1997, Schweiger 1998, Kuhrt 2007, Schmitt 2009
  35. ↑ Chardin 1740, Kämpfer 1712, De Bruyn 1737, Ouseley 1821, Flandin/Coste 1851–1854, Lassen 1845, Westergaard 1845b, Weißbach 1911a, Herzfeld 1938, Kent 1953, Vallat 1977, Shabazi 1985, Lecoq 1997, Schweiger 1998, Schmitt 2000, Mitchell 2000, Schmitt 2009
  36. ↑ Niebuhr 1774–1778, Flandin/Coste 1851–1854, Stolze 1882, Weißbach 1911a, Kent 1953, Schmidt 1953, Shahbazi 1985, Lecoq 1997, Schweiger 1998, Schmitt 2000, Kuhrt 2007, Schmitt 2009, Schmitt 2020
  37. ↑ Niebuhr 1774–1778, Flandin/Coste 1851–1854, Stolze 1882, Tolman 1908, Weißbach 1911a, Sen 1941, Kent 1953, Schmidt 1953, Shahbazi 1985, Lecoq 1997, Schweiger 1998, Schmitt 2000, Kuhrt 2007, Schmitt 2009
  38. ↑ Niebuhr 1774–1778, Westergaard 1845a, Flandin/Coste 1851–1854, Stolze 1882, Weißbach 1911a, Kent 1953, Schmidt 1953, Vallat 1977, Shahbazi 1985, Grillot-Susini 1987, Lecoq 1997, Kuhrt 2007, Schmitt 2009
  39. ↑ Niebuhr 1774–1778, Westergaard 1845b, Flandin/Coste 1851–1854, Stolze 1882, Weißbach 1911a, Kent 1953, Schmidt 1953, Shahbazi 1985, Lecoq 1997, Kuhrt 2007, Schmitt 2009
  40. ↑ Herzfeld 1938, Kent 1953, Schmidt 1953, Krefter 1971, Vallat 1977, Trümpelmann 1988, Schweiger 1998, Kuhrt 2007, Schmitt 2009
  41. ↑ Perrot 1971, Vallat 1986, Lecoq 1997, Kuhrt 2007, Schmitt 2009
  42. ↑ Vallat 1974a, Vallat 1974b, Mayrhofer 1978, Lecoq 1997, Schweiger 1998, Kuhrt 2007, Schmitt 2009, Yoyotte 2010
  43. ↑ Scheil 1900, Scheil 1910, Weißbach 1911a, Scheil 1929, König 1930, Bleichsteiner 1930, Weißbach 1931/1932, Herzfeld 1931b, Kent 1931b, Brandenstein 1932, Kent 1933, Scheil 1933, Herzfeld 1938, Scheil 1939, Hinz 1950, Kent 1953, Hinz 1971, Vallat 1972b, Steve 1974, Vallat 1977, Mayrhofer 1978, Mayrhofer 1981, Vallat 1983, Steve 1987, Grillot-Susini 1990, Caubet 1994, Lecoq 1997, Schweiger 1998, Schmitt 1999b, Rossi 2003, Kuhrt 2007, Schmitt 2009
  44. ↑ Scheil 1929, Kent 1931a, Brandenstein 1932, Sen 1941, Hinz 1941, Kent 1953, Schmitt 1999a, Schmitt 2009
  45. ↑ Perrot 1971, Vallat 1970, Vallat 1972b, Steve 1974, Vallat 1977, Steve 1987, Lecoq 1997, Schweiger 1998, Kuhrt 2007, Schmitt 2009
  46. ↑ Flandin/Coste 1851–1854, Burnouf 1836, Weißbach 1911a, Sen 1941, Kent 1953, Vallat 1977, Hinz 1979, Lecoq 1997, Schweiger 1998, Kuhrt 2007, Schmitt 2009
  47. ↑ Rich 1839, Westergaard 1845a, Westergaard 1845b, Lassen 1845, Flandin/Coste 1851–1854, Stolze 1882, Weißbach 1911a, Schmidt 1953, Kent 1953, Vallat 1977, Shahbazi 1985, Lecoq 1997, Schweiger 1998, Kuhrt 2007, Schmitt 2009
  48. ↑ De Bruyn 1737, Niebuhr 1774–1778, Flandin/Coste 1851–1854, Stolze 1882, Weißbach 1911a, Herzfeld 1938, Schmidt 1953, Kent 1953, Vallat 1977, Herrenschmidt 1983, Shahbazi 1985, Lecoq 1997, Schweiger 1998, Kozuh 2003, Schmitt 2009
  49. ↑ De Bruyn 1711, Flandin/Coste 1851–1854, Stolze 1882, Weißbach 1911a, Schmidt 1953, Kent 1953, Vallat 1977, Lecoq 1997, Schweiger 1998, Kozuh 2003, Schmitt 2009
  50. ↑ Flandin/Coste 1851–1854, Stolze 1882, Weißbach 1911a, Schmidt 1953, Kent 1953, Vallat 1977, Herrenschmidt 1983, Shahbazi 1985, Lecoq 1997, Schweiger 1998, Kozuh 2003, Schmitt 2009
  51. ↑ Schulz 1840, Lassen 1845, Rawlinson 1847, Lehmann-Haupt 1900, Foy 1900, Weißbach 1911a, Kent 1953, Vallat 1977, Hinz 1979, Lecoq 1997, Schweiger 1998, Kuhrt 2007, Schmitt 2009
  52. ↑ Dieulafoy 1893, Weißbach 1911a, Kent 1953, Lecoq 1997, Schweiger 1998, Schmitt 1999a, Knapton et al. 2001, Kuhrt 2007, Schmitt 2009
  53. ↑ Brandenstein 1932, Herzfeld 1928–1929, Kent 1953, Lecoq 1997, Schweiger 1998, Schmitt 1999a, Knapton et al. 2001, Kuhrt 2007, Schmitt 2009
  54. ↑ Kent 1953, Yamauchi 1990, Lecoq 1997, Schweiger 1998, Schmitt 1999a, Schmitt 2009
  55. ↑ Loftus 1857, Norris 1855, Weißbach 1891, Weißbach 1911a, Scheil 1929, Brandenstein 1932, Kent 1953, Vallat 1977, Mayrhofer 1978, Steve 1987, Lecoq 1997, Schweiger 1998, Schmitt 1999a, Werba 2006, Kuhrt 2007, Schmitt 2009
  56. ↑ Loftus 1857, Weißbach 1911a, Kent 1953, Vallat 1977, Steve 1987, Lecoq 1997, Schweiger 1998, Schmitt 1999a, Schmitt 2009
  57. ↑ Dieulafoy 1890, Weißbach 1911a, Kent 1953, Lecoq 1997, Schweiger 1998, Schmitt 1999a, Schmitt 2009
  58. ↑ Weißbach 1911a, Scheil 1929, Brandenstein 1932, Scheil 1933, Kent 1953, Vallat 1972a, Vallat 1977, Vallat 1979, Steve 1987, Lecoq 1997, Schweiger 1998, Schmitt 1999a, Werba 2006, Kuhrt 2007, Schmitt 2009
  59. ↑ Flandin/Coste 1851–1854, Oppert 1852, Tolman 1908, Weißbach 1911a, Kent 1953, Schmidt 1953, Shahbazi 1985, Lecoq 1997, Schweiger 1998, Schmitt 1999a, Schmitt 2000, Kuhrt 2007, Schmitt 2009
  60. ↑ Davis 1932, Herzfeld 1938, Kent 1953, Vallat 1977, Mayrhofer 1978, Lecoq 1997, Schweiger 1998, Schmitt 1999a, Schmitt 2000, Kuhrt 2007, Calmeyer/Schmitt 2009, Schmitt 2009

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