Alcohol-induced respiratory reactions, also termed alcohol-induced asthma and alcohol-induced respiratory symptoms, are increasingly recognized as a pathological bronchoconstriction response to the consumption of alcohol that afflicts many people with a "classical" form of asthma, the airway constriction disease evoked by the inhalation of allergens. Alcohol-induced respiratory reactions reflect the operation of different and often racially related mechanisms that differ from those of classical, allergen-induced asthma.
In 1973, Breslin et al. tested the effects of alcoholic beverage consumption on the respiratory symptoms of 11 asthmatic subjects who gave a history of asthma attacks following certain alcoholic beverages. In response to ingesting the type of beverage that the subjects reported to provoke their symptoms, six developed the asthmatic symptom of chest tightness, two developed a symptom often associated with asthma, rhinitis, and one subject developed both chest tightness and rhinitis. Symptoms developed almost immediately after ingestion. Inhalation of fumes from the beverages did not precipitate symptoms. And bronchoconstriction in response to the ingestion was confirmed in the three patients evaluated by pulmonary function tests.[1] The study suggested that these reactions were induced by non-alcoholic allergens that were contained in or contaminated the beverages.
In 1978 a non-asthmatic female of Japanese descent with a history of moderately severe bronchoconstriction responses to various alcoholic beverages[2] and in 1981 an asthmatic Japanese male with a similar history[3] with beer or 95% pure ethanol were studied. They were found to develop bronchoconstriction after drinking apple juice containing alcohol. Intravenous infusion or inhalation of ethanol also caused bronchospasm responses in the male subject. These studies suggested that alcohol itself caused the asthmatic symptoms triggered by alcoholic beverages.
A subsequent study in 1986 found that 9 of 18 patients with a history of red-wine-induced asthma symptoms showed bronchoconstriction in response to ingesting red wine; the response correlated positively with the amount of sulfur dioxide contained in the provocative wine.[4] The study suggested that the reaction was not allergen-induced but rather triggered by sulfur dioxide, a sulfur-dioxide-related agent, or an agent whose levels in alcohol beverages correlated positively with those of sulfur dioxide.
Finally, a questionnaire survey of 366 asthmatic patients conducted in 2000 found that 33% reported asthma symptoms in response to alcoholic beverages; there was a significant association between wine-induced asthma and asthma triggered by sulfite-containing foods, by aspirin, and by nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAID) other than aspirin.[5] The study suggested the salicylate-"contaminates" in wine may contribute to these responses.
In other studies, D.P. Agarwal and colleagues associated race-based variations in the activity of alcohol-metabolizing enzymes with the occurrence of alcohol flush reactions to alcohol and alcoholic beverages in certain Asian populations.[6][7] This early work is the basis for further studies that have defined not only many alcohol-induced flush reactions but also many alcohol-induced respiratory reactions as due to racially associated genetic differences in alcohol-metabolizing enzymes.
In Asians
Alcohol-induced asthma reactions among Asians has been most thoroughly studied in those of native Japanese descent. In such individuals, the ingestion of virtually any alcoholic beverage or pure ethanol and, in some cases, the smelling of ethanol fumes may be followed, typically within 1–30 minutes, by one or more of the following symptoms: an alcohol flush reaction (i.e. the "Asian flush syndrome"[citation needed]), rapid heart rate, dizziness, light-headedness, urticaria, systemic dermatitis, rhinitis, and, in about half of individuals with a history of asthma, exacerbation of asthmatic bronchoconstriction and related symptoms.[8] In extremely rare instances, asthmatic symptoms in response to alcoholic beverages may occur in the absence of a history of asthma,[2] and cardiovascular collapse, anaphylaxis, and even death may occur.[8] These reactions appear due to a deficiency in the metabolism of the ethanol in the alcoholic beverage.
Humans metabolize ethanol to acetaldehyde primarily through NAD+-dependent alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) class I enzymes (i.e. ADH1A, ADH1B, and ADH1C), and then metabolize acetaldehyde primarily by NAD2-dependent aldehyde dehydrogenase 2 (ALDH2) to acetic acid.[9][10] East Asians have a deficiency in acetaldehyde metabolism in a surprisingly high percentage (approaching half) of their populations. The deficiency has been most thoroughly investigated in native Japanese who have a variant ALDH2 allele termed glu487lys, ALDH2*2 or ALDH2*504lys, which is a single nucleotide polymorphism allele encoding in its amino acid residue 487 (glutamic acid) rather than lysine. In the Japanese population, about 57% of individuals are homozygous for the normal allele (sometimes termed ALDH2*1), 40% are heterozygous for glu487lys, and 3% are homozygous for glu487lys.[11] Since ALDH2 assembles and functions as a tetramer and since ALDH2 tetramers containing one or more glu487lys proteins are also essentially inactive, the glu487lys protein behaves as a dominant negative in inactivating the normal ALDH2 protein. Individuals homozygous for glu487lys have undetectable ALDH2 activity, while heterozygote individuals for glu487lys have little ALDH2 activity.[12]
In consequence, Japanese homozygous or, to a lesser extent, heterozygous for glu487lys metabolize ethanol to acetaldehyde normally, but metabolize acetaldehyde poorly and are thereby susceptible to a set of adverse responses to ethanol and ethanol-containing beverages. These responses include the transient accumulation of acetaldehyde in blood and tissues; facial flushingurticaria, systemic dermatitis, and alcohol-induced respiratory reactions (i.e. rhinitis and, primarily in patients with a history of asthma, mild to moderately bronchoconstriction exacerbations of their asthmatic disease.[8] These allergic-reaction-like symptoms, which typically occur within 30–60 minutes of ingesting alcoholic beverages, do not appear to reflect the operation of classical IgE- or T cell-related allergen-induced reactions, but rather are due, at least in large part, to the action of acetaldehyde in stimulating tissue mast cells and blood-borne basophils to release histamine, the probable evoker of these symptoms.[13][8]
The percentages of glu487lys heterozygous plus homozygous genotypes follow: ~35% in native Caboclo of Brazil, 30% in Chinese, 28% in Koreans, 11% in Thai people, 7% in Malaysians, 3% in natives of India, 3% in Hungarians, and 1% in Filipinos. The percentages are essentially 0% in individuals of Native African descent, Caucasians of Western European descent, Turks, Australian Aborigines, Australians of Western European descent, Swedish Sámi, and Alaska natives.[14][13] While the prevalence of flushing reactions is high in those non-Japanese populations that have a high prevalence of the glu487lys genotype, the percentages of these non-Japanese individuals with the glu487lys allele who experience respiratory symptoms, particularly asthmatic exacerbations, has yet to be defined.
Alcohol-induced respiratory symptoms result from a wide range of interacting genetic, metabolic, environmental, and social factors[15][16] These interacting factors are likely to vary from one nationality group to another and thereby alter, perhaps dramatically, the phenotype produced by the glu487lys allele: the alcohol-induce reactions of Japanese with the glu487lys allele may not be good predictors of those occurring in other nationality groups. "Social factors", despite claims made by social constructionists, have no impact on a genetic aldehyde dehydrogenase deficiency.
In non-Asians
The prevalence of ethanol-induced allergic symptoms in non-Asian genotypes commonly ranges above 5%, even though many of these non-Asian populations have no or very low levels of individuals bearing the glu487lys allele. These "ethanol reactors" may have other gene-based abnormalities that cause the accumulation of acetaldehyde following the ingestion of ethanol or ethanol-containing beverages. For example, the surveyed incidence of self-reported ethanol-induced flushing reactions in Scandinavians living in Copenhagen as well as Australians of European descent is about ~16% in individuals homozygous for the "normal" ADH1B gene, but runs to ~23% in individuals with the ADH1-Arg48His Single-nucleotide polymorphism variant. In vitro, this variant metabolizes ethanol rapidly and it has been proposed that in humans it may form acetaldehyde at levels exceeding ALDH2's acetaldehyde-metabolizing capacity.[13][17] Presumably then, acetaldehyde provokes the respiratory symptoms in a manner similar to that occurring in Asians with the glu487lys ALDH2 variant.
In studies conducted in the USA and presumably therefore mainly on non-Asians, alcohol-induced rhinitis and exacerbations of asthma reactions are highly associated with aspirin-exacerbated respiratory disease reactions; more than half of individuals suffering from the aspirin-induced sensitivity reaction will also suffer alcohol-induced reactions.[18]
It seems likely, although further study is needed, that most respiratory symptoms induced by alcoholic beverages, particular wines and beers, occurring in non-Asian individuals are due to true allergic responses to the allergens that are part of, or contaminate, these drinks.[8]
Diagnosis
Diagnosis of alcohol-induced respiratory symptoms can be strongly suggested on the basis of survey questionnaires.[19][13] Questionnaires can be devised to determine the specific types of alcoholic beverages eliciting reactions. Reactions evoked by one or only a few but not other types of alcoholic beverage, particularly when the offending beverage(s) is wine and/or beer, suggest that the reactions are due to classical allergic reaction to allergens in the beverage; reactions to all or most types of alcoholic beverages favors a genetic (i.e. acetaldehyde-induced) basis. Further differentiation between these two causes can be tested under medical supervision by determining if ingestion of a water-diluted pure ethanol solution elicits reactions or if an offending alcoholic beverage but not the same beverage without ethanol elicits reactions. Either result would favor an acetaldehyde-induced genetic basis for the reaction.[8]
Diagnosis of alcohol sensitivity due to the accumulation of acetaldehyde in individuals bearing the glu487lys ALDH2 allele can be made by measuring the diameter of the erythema (i.e. red) area developing under a 15 millimeter skin patch plaster soaked in 70% ethanol and applied for 48 hours (ethanol patch test). Erythema of 15 millimeters is considered positive, with a false positive ratio ([100 x {number of individuals with a positive patch test}]/{number of individuals with a normal ALDH2 genotype}) of 5.9% and a false negative ratio ([100 x {number of individuals with a negative patch test}]/{number of individuals with a glu487lys ALDH2 allele}) of 0%.[20] To resolve ambiguities in or replace the ethanol patch test for other reasons, a polymerase chain reaction using special primers and conditions can be used to directly detect the glu487lys ALDH2 genes.[21] For other causes of acetaldehyde-induced alcohol sensitivities, the ethanol patch test will need to be tested for verification of its acetaldehyde basis and appropriate polymerase chain reactions will likewise be needed to verify a genetic basis for symptoms.
Diagnosis of alcohol sensitivity due to allergic reactivity to the allergens in alcoholic beverages can be confirmed by standard skin prick tests, skin patch tests, blood tests, challenge tests, and challenge/elimination tests as conducted for determining the allergen causing other classical allergic reactions (see allergy and Skin allergy tests.)
Treatment
Avoidance of ethanol is the safest, surest, and cheapest treatment. Indeed, surveys find a positive correlation between high incidence of glu487lys ALDH2 allele-related alcohol-induced respiratory reactions as well as other causes of these reactions and low levels of alcohol consumption, alcoholism, and alcohol-related diseases.[22][13] Evidently, people suffering these reactions self-impose avoidance behavior. Ethanol, at moderate to high concentrations, is used as a solvent to dissolve many types of medicines and other ingredients. This pertains particularly to liquid cold medicines and mouthwashes.[8] Ethanol avoidance includes avoiding ingesting and (depending on an individual's history) mouth-washing with such agents.
Type H1 antagonists in the histamine antagonist family of drugs were tested in Japanese volunteers with alcohol-induced asthma (who presumably have glu487lys ALDH2 allele-associated asthma) and found to be completely effective in blocking bronchoconstriction responses to alcoholic beverages. These blockers, it is suggested, may be taken 1–2 hours before consumption of alcohol beverages as a preventative of alcohol-induced respiratory reactions.[23][24] In the absence of specific studies on the prevention of classical alcohol-induced rhinitis and asthma due to allergens in alcoholic beverages, see asthma section on Prevention and rhinitis section on Prevention of allergen-induced reactions.
In the absence of specific studies on the treatment of acute alcohol-induced bronchoconstriction and rhinitis, treatment guidelines should probably follow those of their comparable allergen-induced classical allergic reactions (see asthma section on Treatment and rhinitis section on Treatment), but possibly favoring the testing of H1 antagonist anti-histamines as part of the initial protocol.
Related Research Articles
Allergies, also known as allergic diseases, are various conditions caused by hypersensitivity of the immune system to typically harmless substances in the environment. These diseases include hay fever, food allergies, atopic dermatitis, allergic asthma, and anaphylaxis. Symptoms may include red eyes, an itchy rash, sneezing, coughing, a runny nose, shortness of breath, or swelling. Note that food intolerances and food poisoning are separate conditions.
An allergen is a type of antigen that produces an abnormally vigorous immune response in which the immune system fights off a perceived threat that would otherwise be harmless to the body. Such reactions are called allergies.
Allergic rhinitis, of which the seasonal type is called hay fever, is a type of inflammation in the nose that occurs when the immune system overreacts to allergens in the air. Signs and symptoms include a runny or stuffy nose, sneezing, red, itchy, and watery eyes, and swelling around the eyes. The fluid from the nose is usually clear. Symptom onset is often within minutes following allergen exposure, and can affect sleep and the ability to work or study. Some people may develop symptoms only during specific times of the year, often as a result of pollen exposure. Many people with allergic rhinitis also have asthma, allergic conjunctivitis, or atopic dermatitis.
Rhinitis, also known as coryza, is irritation and inflammation of the mucous membrane inside the nose. Common symptoms are a stuffy nose, runny nose, sneezing, and post-nasal drip.
Allergen immunotherapy, also known as desensitization or hypo-sensitization, is a medical treatment for environmental allergies, such as insect bites, and asthma. Immunotherapy involves exposing people to larger and larger amounts of allergens in an attempt to change the immune system's response.
Alcohol flush reaction is a condition in which a person develops flushes or blotches associated with erythema on the face, neck, shoulders, ears, and in some cases, the entire body after consuming alcoholic beverages. The reaction is the result of an accumulation of acetaldehyde, a metabolic byproduct of the catabolic metabolism of alcohol, and is caused by an aldehyde dehydrogenase 2 deficiency.
Atopy is the tendency to produce an exaggerated immunoglobulin E (IgE) immune response to otherwise harmless substances in the environment. Allergic diseases are clinical manifestations of such inappropriate, atopic responses.
Bronchoconstriction is the constriction of the airways in the lungs due to the tightening of surrounding smooth muscle, with consequent coughing, wheezing, and shortness of breath.
Peanut allergy is a type of food allergy to peanuts. It is different from tree nut allergies, because peanuts are legumes and not true nuts. Physical symptoms of allergic reaction can include itchiness, hives, swelling, eczema, sneezing, asthma attack, abdominal pain, drop in blood pressure, diarrhea, and cardiac arrest. Anaphylaxis may occur. Those with a history of asthma are more likely to be severely affected.
Exercise-induced bronchoconstriction (EIB) occurs when the airways narrow as a result of exercise. This condition has been referred to as exercise-induced asthma (EIA); however, this term is no longer preferred. While exercise does not cause asthma, it is frequently an asthma trigger.
Allergic inflammation is an important pathophysiological feature of several disabilities or medical conditions including allergic asthma, atopic dermatitis, allergic rhinitis and several ocular allergic diseases. Allergic reactions may generally be divided into two components; the early phase reaction, and the late phase reaction. While the contribution to the development of symptoms from each of the phases varies greatly between diseases, both are usually present and provide us a framework for understanding allergic disease.
Wheat allergy is an allergy to wheat which typically presents itself as a food allergy, but can also be a contact allergy resulting from occupational exposure. Like all allergies, wheat allergy involves immunoglobulin E and mast cell response. Typically the allergy is limited to the seed storage proteins of wheat. Some reactions are restricted to wheat proteins, while others can react across many varieties of seeds and other plant tissues. Wheat allergy is rare. Prevalence in adults was found to be 0.21% in a 2012 study in Japan.
Aldehyde dehydrogenase, mitochondrial is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the ALDH2 gene located on chromosome 12. ALDH2 belongs to the aldehyde dehydrogenase family of enzymes. Aldehyde dehydrogenase is the second enzyme of the major oxidative pathway of alcohol metabolism. ALDH2 has a low Km for acetaldehyde, and is localized in mitochondrial matrix. The other liver isozyme, ALDH1, localizes to the cytosol.
The short-term effects of alcohol consumption range from a decrease in anxiety and motor skills and euphoria at lower doses to intoxication (drunkenness), to stupor, unconsciousness, anterograde amnesia, and central nervous system depression at higher doses. Cell membranes are highly permeable to alcohol, so once it is in the bloodstream, it can diffuse into nearly every cell in the body.
NSAIDhypersensitivity reactions encompass a broad range of allergic or allergic-like symptoms that occur within minutes to hours after ingesting aspirin or other NSAID nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. Hypersensitivity drug reactions differ from drug toxicity reactions in that drug toxicity reactions result from the pharmacological action of a drug, are dose-related, and can occur in any treated individual. Hypersensitivity reactions are idiosyncratic reactions to a drug. Although the term NSAID was introduced to signal a comparatively low risk of adverse effects, NSAIDs do evoke a broad range of hypersensitivity syndromes. These syndromes have recently been classified by the European Academy of Allergy and Clinical Immunology Task Force on NSAIDs Hypersensitivity.
Alcohol intolerance is due to a genetic polymorphism of the aldehyde dehydrogenase enzyme, which is responsible for the metabolism of acetaldehyde. This polymorphism is most often reported in patients of East Asian descent. Alcohol intolerance may also be an associated side effect of certain drugs such as disulfiram, metronidazole, or nilutamide. Skin flushing and nasal congestion are the most common symptoms of intolerance after alcohol ingestion. It may also be characterized as intolerance causing hangover symptoms similar to the "disulfiram-like reaction" of aldehyde dehydrogenase deficiency or chronic fatigue syndrome. Severe pain after drinking alcohol may indicate a more serious underlying condition.
Histamine intolerance is a presumed set of adverse reactions to ingested histamine in food. The mainstream theory accepts that there may exist adverse reactions to ingested histamine, but does not recognize histamine intolerance as a separate condition that can be diagnosed. There is a common suspicion that ingested histamine in persons with deficiencies in the enzymes that metabolize histamine may be responsible for various non-specific health complaints, which some individuals categorize as histamine intolerance, still, histamine intolerance is not recognized as an explicit medical condition with that name in the International Classification of Diseases (ICD) Edition 11, or any previous edition. The scientific proof that supports the idea that eating food containing histamine can cause health problems is currently limited and not consistent.
Fish allergy is an immune hypersensitivity to proteins found in fish. Symptoms can be either rapid or gradual in onset. The latter can take hours to days to appear. The former may include anaphylaxis, a potentially life-threatening condition which requires treatment with epinephrine. Other presentations may include atopic dermatitis or inflammation of the esophagus. Fish is one of the eight common food allergens which are responsible for 90% of allergic reactions to foods: cow's milk, eggs, wheat, shellfish, peanuts, tree nuts, fish, and soy beans.
Shellfish allergy is among the most common food allergies. "Shellfish" is a colloquial and fisheries term for aquatic invertebrates used as food, including various species of molluscs such as clams, mussels, oysters and scallops, crustaceans such as shrimp, lobsters and crabs, and cephalopods such as squid and octopus. Shellfish allergy is an immune hypersensitivity to proteins found in shellfish. Symptoms can be either rapid or gradual in onset. The latter can take hours to days to appear. The former may include anaphylaxis, a potentially life-threatening condition which requires treatment with epinephrine. Other presentations may include atopic dermatitis or inflammation of the esophagus. Shellfish is one of the eight common food allergens, responsible for 90% of allergic reactions to foods: cow's milk, eggs, wheat, shellfish, peanuts, tree nuts, fish, and soy beans.
A food allergy to sesame seeds has prevalence estimates in the range of 0.1–0.2% of the general population, and are higher in the Middle East and other countries where sesame seeds are used in traditional foods. Reporting of sesame seed allergy has increased in the 21st century, either due to a true increase from exposure to more sesame foods or due to an increase in awareness. Increasing sesame allergy rates have induced more countries to regulate food labels to identify sesame ingredients in products and the potential for allergy. In the United States, sesame became the ninth food allergen with mandatory labeling, effective 1 January 2023.
↑ Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 1999 Apr;82(4):390-4
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