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The Indo-Iranian languages constitute the largest and southeasternmost extant branch of the Indo-European language family. They include over 300 languages,spoken by around 1.5 billion speakers,predominantly in South Asia,West Asia and parts of Central Asia.
The Indo-European languages are a language family native to the languages of the northern Indian subcontinent,the overwhelming majority of Europe,and the Iranian plateau. Some European languages of this family—English,French,Portuguese,Russian,Dutch,and Spanish—have expanded through colonialism in the modern period and are now spoken across several continents. The Indo-European family is divided into several branches or sub-families,of which there are eight groups with languages still alive today:Albanian,Armenian,Balto-Slavic,Celtic,Germanic,Hellenic,Indo-Iranian,and Italic;another nine subdivisions are now extinct.
A language family is a group of languages related through descent from a common ancestor,called the proto-language of that family. The term family is a metaphor borrowed from biology,with the tree model used in historical linguistics analogous to a family tree,or to phylogenetic trees of taxa used in evolutionary taxonomy. Linguists thus describe the daughter languages within a language family as being genetically related. The divergence of a proto-language into daughter languages typically occurs through geographical separation,with different regional dialects of the proto-language undergoing different language changes and thus becoming distinct languages over time.
The Proto-Indo-Europeans are a hypothetical prehistoric ethnolinguistic group of Eurasia who spoke Proto-Indo-European (PIE),the reconstructed common ancestor of the Indo-European language family.
In historical linguistics,the homeland or Urheimat of a proto-language is the region in which it was spoken before splitting into different daughter languages. A proto-language is the reconstructed or historically-attested parent language of a group of languages that are genetically related.
Proto-Indo-European (PIE) is the reconstructed common ancestor of the Indo-European language family. No direct record of Proto-Indo-European exists;its proposed features have been derived by linguistic reconstruction from documented Indo-European languages.
The Algic languages are an indigenous language family of North America. Most Algic languages belong to the Algonquian subfamily,dispersed over a broad area from the Rocky Mountains to Atlantic Canada. The other Algic languages are the Yurok and Wiyot of northwestern California,which,despite their geographic proximity,are not closely related. All these languages descend from Proto-Algic,a second-order proto-language estimated to have been spoken about 7,000 years ago and reconstructed using the reconstructed Proto-Algonquian language and the Wiyot and Yurok languages.
Old Europe is a term coined by the Lithuanian archaeologist Marija Gimbutas to describe what she perceived as a relatively homogeneous pre-Indo-European Neolithic and Copper Age culture or civilisation in Southeast Europe,centred in the Lower Danube Valley. Old Europe is also referred to in some literature as the Danube civilisation.
The Kurgan hypothesis is the most widely accepted proposal to identify the Proto-Indo-European homeland from which the Indo-European languages spread out throughout Europe and parts of Asia. It postulates that the people of a Kurgan culture in the Pontic steppe north of the Black Sea were the most likely speakers of the Proto-Indo-European language (PIE). The term is derived from the Turkic word kurgan (курга́н),meaning tumulus or burial mound.
The Yamnaya culture or the Yamna culture,also known as the Pit Grave culture or Ochre Grave culture,is a late Copper Age to early Bronze Age archaeological culture of the region between the Southern Bug,Dniester,and Ural rivers,dating to 3300–2600 BC. It was discovered by Vasily Gorodtsov following his archaeological excavations near the Donets River in 1901–1903. Its name derives from its characteristic burial tradition:Я́мнаяis a Russian adjective that means 'related to pits ',as these people used to bury their dead in tumuli (kurgans) containing simple pit chambers. Research in recent years has found that Mikhaylovka,in lower Dnieper river,Ukraine,formed the Core Yamnaya culture.
Yurok is an Algic language. It is the traditional language of the Yurok people of Del Norte County and Humboldt County on the far north coast of California,most of whom now speak English. The last known native speaker,Archie Thompson,died in 2013. As of 2012,Yurok language classes were taught to high school students,and other revitalization efforts were expected to increase the population of speakers.
Karuk or Karok is the traditional language of the Karuk people in the region surrounding the Klamath River,in Northwestern California. The name ‘Karuk’is derived from the Karuk word káruk,meaning “upriver”.
The Anatolian hypothesis,also known as the Anatolian theory or the sedentary farmer theory,first developed by British archaeologist Colin Renfrew in 1987,proposes that the dispersal of Proto-Indo-Europeans originated in Neolithic Anatolia. It is the main competitor to the Kurgan hypothesis,or steppe theory,which enjoys more academic favor.
The Armenian hypothesis,also known as the Near Eastern model,is a theory of the Proto-Indo-European homeland,initially proposed by linguists Tamaz V. Gamkrelidze and Vyacheslav Ivanov in the early 1980s,which suggests that the Proto-Indo-European language was spoken during the 5th–4th millennia BC in "eastern Anatolia,the southern Caucasus,and northern Mesopotamia".
The Proto-Indo-European homeland was the prehistoric linguistic homeland of the Proto-Indo-European language (PIE). From this region,its speakers migrated east and west,and formed the proto-communities of the different branches of the Indo-European language family.
Tandy Warnow is an American computer scientist and Grainger Distinguished Chair in Engineering at the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign. She is known for her work on the reconstruction of evolutionary trees,both in biology and in historical linguistics,and also for multiple sequence alignment methods.
The Indo-European migrations are hypothesized migrations of peoples who spoke Proto-Indo-European (PIE) and the derived Indo-European languages,which took place from around 4000 to 1000 BCE,potentially explaining how these related languages came to be spoken across a large area of Eurasia spanning from the Indian subcontinent and Iranian plateau to Atlantic Europe,in a process of cultural diffusion.
The Inner–Outer hypothesis of the subclassification of the Indo-Aryan language family argues for a division of the family into two groups,an Inner core and an Outer periphery,evidenced by shared traits of the languages falling into one of the two groups. Proponents of the theory generally believe the distinction to be the result of gradual migrations of Indo-Aryan speakers into the Indian subcontinent,with the inner languages representing a second wave of migration speaking a different dialect of Old Indo-Aryan,overtaking the first-wave speakers in the center and relegating them to the outer region.
The farming/language dispersal hypothesis proposes that many of the largest language families in the world dispersed along with the expansion of agriculture. This hypothesis was proposed by archaeologists Peter Bellwood and Colin Renfrew. It has been widely debated and archaeologists,linguists,and geneticists often disagree with all or only parts of the hypothesis.
Albanoid or Albanic is a branch or subfamily of the Indo-European (IE) languages,of which Albanian language varieties are the only surviving representatives. In current classifications of the IE language family,Albanian is grouped in the same IE branch with Messapic,an ancient extinct language of Balkan provenance that is preserved in about six hundred inscriptions from Iron Age Apulia. This IE subfamily is alternatively referred to as Illyric,Illyrian complex,Western Paleo-Balkan,or Adriatic Indo-European. Concerning "Illyrian" of classical antiquity,it is not clear whether the scantly documented evidence actually represents one language and not material from several languages,but if "Illyrian" is defined as the ancient precursor of Albanian or the sibling of Proto-Albanian it is automatically included in this IE branch. Albanoid is also used to explain Albanian-like pre-Romance features found in Eastern Romance languages.
References
- ↑ "Andrew Garrett" . Retrieved June 8, 2009.
- ↑ Johnston, Jesse (June 26, 2013). "Voices for the Future". National Endowment for the Humanities. Retrieved January 24, 2014.
- ↑ Will Chang, David Hall, Chundra Cathcart, Andrew Garrett, "Ancestry-constrained phylogenetic analysis supports the Indo-European steppe hypothesis,"Language, Vol. 91, No. 1 (MARCH 2015), pp. 194-244
- ↑ "LSA".
- 1 2 "Distinguished Teaching awards announced". newsarchive.berkeley.edu. April 24, 2007. Retrieved December 2, 2024.
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