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The Indo-Iranian languages constitute the largest and southeasternmost extant branch of the Indo-European language family. They include over 300 languages,spoken by around 1.5 billion speakers,predominantly in South Asia,West Asia and parts of Central Asia.
The Indo-European languages are a language family native to the overwhelming majority of Europe,the Iranian plateau,and the northern Indian subcontinent. Some European languages of this family—English,French,Portuguese,Russian,Dutch,and Spanish—have expanded through colonialism in the modern period and are now spoken across several continents. The Indo-European family is divided into several branches or sub-families,of which there are eight groups with languages still alive today:Albanian,Armenian,Balto-Slavic,Celtic,Germanic,Hellenic,Indo-Iranian,and Italic;another nine subdivisions are now extinct.
The Proto-Indo-Europeans are a hypothetical prehistoric ethnolinguistic group of Eurasia who spoke Proto-Indo-European (PIE),the reconstructed common ancestor of the Indo-European language family.
The Corded Ware culture comprises a broad archaeological horizon of Europe between c. 3000 BC –2350 BC,thus from the late Neolithic,through the Copper Age,and ending in the early Bronze Age. Corded Ware culture encompassed a vast area,from the contact zone between the Yamnaya culture and the Corded Ware culture in south Central Europe,to the Rhine in the west and the Volga in the east,occupying parts of Northern Europe,Central Europe and Eastern Europe. Autosomal genetic studies suggest that the Corded Ware culture originated from the westward migration of Yamnaya-related people from the steppe-forest zone into the territory of late Neolithic European cultures,evolving in parallel with the Yamnaya,with no evidence of direct male-line descent between them.
In historical linguistics,the homeland or Urheimat of a proto-language is the region in which it was spoken before splitting into different daughter languages. A proto-language is the reconstructed or historically-attested parent language of a group of languages that are genetically related.
The Elamo-Dravidian language family is a hypothesised language family that links the Elamite language of ancient Elam to the Dravidian languages of South Asia. The latest version (2015) of the hypothesis entails a reclassification of Brahui as being more closely related to Elamite than to the remaining Dravidian languages. Linguist David McAlpin has been a chief proponent of the Elamo-Dravidian hypothesis,followed by Franklin Southworth as the other major supporter. The hypothesis has gained attention in academic circles,but has been subject to serious criticism by linguists,and remains only one of several possible scenarios for the origins of the Dravidian languages. Elamite is generally accepted by scholars to be a language isolate,unrelated to any other known language.
Proto-Indo-European (PIE) is the reconstructed common ancestor of the Indo-European language family. No direct record of Proto-Indo-European exists;its proposed features have been derived by linguistic reconstruction from documented Indo-European languages.
Old Europe is a term coined by the Lithuanian archaeologist Marija Gimbutas to describe what she perceived as a relatively homogeneous pre-Indo-European Neolithic and Copper Age culture or civilisation in Southeast Europe,centred in the Lower Danube Valley. Old Europe is also referred to in some literature as the Danube civilisation.
The Kurgan hypothesis is the most widely accepted proposal to identify the Proto-Indo-European homeland from which the Indo-European languages spread out throughout Europe and parts of Asia. It postulates that the people of a Kurgan culture in the Pontic steppe north of the Black Sea were the most likely speakers of the Proto-Indo-European language (PIE). The term is derived from the Turkic word kurgan (курга́н),meaning tumulus or burial mound.
The Yamnaya culture or the Yamna culture,also known as the Pit Grave culture or Ochre Grave culture,is a late Copper Age to early Bronze Age archaeological culture of the region between the Southern Bug,Dniester,and Ural rivers,dating to 3300–2600 BCE. It was discovered by Vasily Gorodtsov following his archaeological excavations near the Donets River in 1901–1903. Its name derives from its characteristic burial tradition:Я́мнаяis a Russian adjective that means 'related to pits ',as these people used to bury their dead in tumuli (kurgans) containing simple pit chambers. Research in recent years has found that Mikhaylovka,in lower Dnieper river,Ukraine,formed the Core Yamnaya culture.
Yurok is an Algic language. It is the traditional language of the Yurok people of Del Norte County and Humboldt County on the far north coast of California,most of whom now speak English. The last known native speaker,Archie Thompson,died in 2013. As of 2012,Yurok language classes were taught to high school students,and other revitalization efforts were expected to increase the population of speakers.
The Sredny Stog culture or Serednii Stih culture is a pre-Kurgan archaeological culture from the mid. 5th –mid. 4th millennia BC. It is named after the Dnieper river islet of today's Serednii Stih,Ukraine,where it was first located.
The Anatolian hypothesis,also known as the Anatolian theory or the sedentary farmer theory,first developed by British archaeologist Colin Renfrew in 1987,proposes that the dispersal of Proto-Indo-Europeans originated in Neolithic Anatolia. It is the main competitor to the Kurgan hypothesis,or steppe theory,which enjoys more academic favor.
The Armenian hypothesis,also known as the Near Eastern model,is a theory of the Proto-Indo-European homeland,initially proposed by linguists Tamaz V. Gamkrelidze and Vyacheslav Ivanov in the early 1980s,which suggests that the Proto-Indo-European language was spoken during the 5th–4th millennia BC in "eastern Anatolia,the southern Caucasus,and northern Mesopotamia".
The Proto-Indo-European homeland was the prehistoric linguistic homeland of the Proto-Indo-European language (PIE). From this region,its speakers migrated east and west,and went on to form the proto-communities of the different branches of the Indo-European language family.
Tandy Warnow is an American computer scientist and Grainger Distinguished Chair in Engineering at the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign. She is known for her work on the reconstruction of evolutionary trees,both in biology and in historical linguistics,and also for multiple sequence alignment methods.
The Indo-European migrations are hypothesized migrations of Proto-Indo-European language (PIE) speakers,and subsequent migrations of people speaking derived Indo-European languages,which took place approx. 4000 to 1000 BCE,potentially explaining how these languages came to be spoken across a large area of Eurasia,spanning from the Indian subcontinent and Iranian plateau to Atlantic Europe,in a process of cultural diffusion.
The Inner–Outer hypothesis of the subclassification of the Indo-Aryan language family argues for a division of the family into two groups,an Inner core and an Outer periphery,evidenced by shared traits of the languages falling into one of the two groups. Proponents of the theory generally believe the distinction to be the result of gradual migrations of Indo-Aryan speakers into the Indian subcontinent,with the inner languages representing a second wave of migration speaking a different dialect of Old Indo-Aryan,overtaking the first-wave speakers in the center and relegating them to the outer region.
The farming/language dispersal hypothesis proposes that many of the largest language families in the world dispersed along with the expansion of agriculture. This hypothesis was proposed by archaeologists Peter Bellwood and Colin Renfrew. It has been widely debated and archaeologists,linguists,and geneticists often disagree with all or only parts of the hypothesis.
Albanoid or Albanic is a branch or subfamily of the Indo-European (IE) languages,of which Albanian language varieties are the only surviving representatives. In current classifications of the IE language family,Albanian is grouped in the same IE branch with Messapic,an ancient extinct language of Balkan provenance that is preserved in about six hundred inscriptions from Iron Age Apulia. This IE subfamily is alternatively referred to as Illyric,Illyrian complex,Western Paleo-Balkan,or Adriatic Indo-European. Concerning "Illyrian" of classical antiquity,it is not clear whether the scantly documented evidence actually represents one language and not material from several languages,but if "Illyrian" is defined as the ancient precursor of Albanian or the sibling of Proto-Albanian it is automatically included in this IE branch. Albanoid is also used to explain Albanian-like pre-Romance features found in Eastern Romance languages.
References
- ↑ "Andrew Garrett" . Retrieved June 8, 2009.
- ↑ Johnston, Jesse (June 26, 2013). "Voices for the Future". National Endowment for the Humanities. Retrieved January 24, 2014.
- ↑ Will Chang, David Hall, Chundra Cathcart, Andrew Garrett, "Ancestry-constrained phylogenetic analysis supports the Indo-European steppe hypothesis,"Language, Vol. 91, No. 1 (MARCH 2015), pp. 194-244
- ↑ "LSA".
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