Arabic compound

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Compound formation in Arabic represents a linguistic occurrence whereby two or more lexemes merge to create a singular word conveying a particular significance. This process of compounding is a fundamental aspect of Arabic morphology and plays a crucial role in lexical expansion and semantic enrichment. [1]

Contents

Arabic compounds denote significant groupings of words that can construct either a full sentence or an incomplete expression referred to as a phrase. [2] The construction of compounds in Arabic follows certain structural and semantic principles, reflecting the unique features of the language. [3] Arabic compound formation exemplifies the intricate interplay between morphology, semantics, and syntax within the Arabic language, making it a rich area of study in linguistics. [4]

Structure

In Arabic grammar, the foundation lies in the classification of linguistic units. A single word is known as mufrad مُفْرَد, encompasses a spectrum of parts of speech, including nouns, pronouns, adjectives, and others. When two or more words combine to form a compound, it's termed murakkab مُرَكَّب. Phrases are called d͡ʒumla ɣajru mufiːda جُمْلَة غَيْرُمُفِيْدَة or simply murakkab مُرَكَّب, while sentences are d͡ʒumla mufiːda جُمْلَة مُفِيْدَة or d͡ʒumla جُمْلَة. Further delving into the nuances, compounds in Arabic bear classifications denoting their completeness. The term almurakkabu nnaːqis اَلْمُرَكَّبُ النَّاقِص designates an incomplete compound, while almurakkabu attaːm اَلْمُرَكَّبُ التَّام signifies a complete one. This distinction underscores the importance of understanding the structural integrity of compounds within Arabic grammar. [2]

In dissecting the anatomy of compounds, Arabic compounds typically consist of a head (the primary component conveying the main semantic content) and one or more modifiers (additional components modifying or specifying the meaning of the head). [5] The order of elements in a compound can vary, but generally, the head precedes the modifier(s). In Modern Standard Arabic (MSA), compounds can be classified into four types. Concerning the primary element (head) within compounds, it's proposed that N + N compounds, apart from Specific General Constructions (SGC), Adj + Adj compounds, and reduplicated compounds, can exhibit either semantic dual-head structure or lack a clear head altogether. [6] This complexity further enriches the understanding of Arabic compound formations, underlining the intricate tapestry of the Arabic language.

Syntactic classification

These compounds can be formed through various morphological processes, including:

  1. Noun-Noun Compounds: This type of compound involves two nouns, where one noun serves as the head and the other as the modifier. For example, "معلمو+الفيزياء" (muʕallim-uu + l-fiizyaaʔ) meaning "the physics teachers." [7] : 63 
  2. Verb-Noun Compounds: These compounds combine a verb with a noun, where the verb typically functions as the modifier specifying the action or quality associated with the noun. For instance, "تدريب+القيادة" (tadriːb + al.qiˈjæːda) meaning "driving training."
  3. Adjective-Noun Compounds: Adjective-noun compounds involve the combination of an adjective and a noun, where the adjective modifies the noun, specifying its quality or characteristic. An example is "سماء+زرقاء" (sa.maʔ + zar.qaːʔ) meaning "blue sky."
  4. Verb-Verb Compounds: In addition to noun-based compounds, Arabic, particularly Jordanian Arabic (JA), includes compounds created by joining two verbs. [8] The verbs can either denote simultaneous actions, sequential actions, or actions that complement each other to convey a particular concept. An example of this type of compound in JA is "قام+وقف" (ga:m + waggaf), [8] : 54  meaning "rose and stood up." [lower-alpha 1]

Semantic Functions

Arabic compounds serve various semantic functions, including: [9]

Linguistic Significance

The study of Arabic compounds holds significant importance in linguistics for several reasons: [11] [9]

  1. Lexical Enrichment: Compounding contributes to the enrichment of the Arabic lexicon by generating new words through the combination of existing morphemes.
  2. Semantic Analysis: Analyzing compounds provides insights into the semantic relationships between lexical elements and the cognitive processes involved in word formation. [12]
  3. Cross-Linguistic Comparison: Studying Arabic compounds allows for comparisons with compound formation in other languages, shedding light on universal principles of morphology and word formation.

The study of Arabic compounds offers valuable insights into the structure and function of the language. While Arabic compounds share all conceptual relations with English compounds, they differ in head direction. Additionally, unique conceptual relations in Arabic compounds were identified, suggesting that Relational Morphology can reconcile various types of compounds, including lexicalized and novel ones. This sheds light on the complexity and versatility of Arabic morphology, enriching our understanding of linguistic systems and paving the way for further research in this field. [13]

Notes

  1. ↑ In this compound, both verbs are closely related in meaning and jointly describe an action. For instance: "علي قام وقف لما أبوه إجا" (In English: Ali rose and stood up when his father came). This compound illustrates how two actions, rising and standing up, are performed simultaneously, conveying a unified action. Despite the absence of an explicit coordinator between the verbs, the compound effectively communicates the intended meaning, suggesting a seamless transition from one action to another. Similarly, English also employs such compounds, as seen in phrases like "crash and land," where two actions are combined to depict a coherent event. [8]

Related Research Articles

In linguistics, morphology is the study of words, including the principles by which they are formed, and how they relate to one another within a language. Most approaches to morphology investigate the structure of words in terms of morphemes, which are the smallest units in a language with some independent meaning. Morphemes include roots that can exist as words by themselves, but also categories such as affixes that can only appear as part of a larger word. For example, in English the root catch and the suffix -ing are both morphemes; catch may appear as its own word, or it may be combined with -ing to form the new word catching. Morphology also analyzes how words behave as parts of speech, and how they may be inflected to express grammatical categories including number, tense, and aspect. Concepts such as productivity are concerned with how speakers create words in specific contexts, which evolves over the history of a language.

In linguistics, syntax is the study of how words and morphemes combine to form larger units such as phrases and sentences. Central concerns of syntax include word order, grammatical relations, hierarchical sentence structure (constituency), agreement, the nature of crosslinguistic variation, and the relationship between form and meaning (semantics). There are numerous approaches to syntax that differ in their central assumptions and goals.

In grammar, a part of speech or part-of-speech is a category of words that have similar grammatical properties. Words that are assigned to the same part of speech generally display similar syntactic behavior, sometimes similar morphological behavior in that they undergo inflection for similar properties and even similar semantic behavior. Commonly listed English parts of speech are noun, verb, adjective, adverb, pronoun, preposition, conjunction, interjection, numeral, article, and determiner.

Linguistics is the scientific study of human language. Someone who engages in this study is called a linguist. See also the Outline of linguistics, the List of phonetics topics, the List of linguists, and the List of cognitive science topics. Articles related to linguistics include:

Lexical semantics, as a subfield of linguistic semantics, is the study of word meanings. It includes the study of how words structure their meaning, how they act in grammar and compositionality, and the relationships between the distinct senses and uses of a word.

In linguistics, a participle is a nonfinite verb form that has some of the characteristics and functions of both verbs and adjectives. More narrowly, participle has been defined as "a word derived from a verb and used as an adjective, as in a laughing face".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">English compound</span> Aspect of English grammar

A compound is a word composed of more than one free morpheme. The English language, like many others, uses compounds frequently. English compounds may be classified in several ways, such as the word classes or the semantic relationship of their components.

In generative linguistics, Distributed Morphology is a theoretical framework introduced in 1993 by Morris Halle and Alec Marantz. The central claim of Distributed Morphology is that there is no divide between the construction of words and sentences. The syntax is the single generative engine that forms sound-meaning correspondences, both complex phrases and complex words. This approach challenges the traditional notion of the Lexicon as the unit where derived words are formed and idiosyncratic word-meaning correspondences are stored. In Distributed Morphology there is no unified Lexicon as in earlier generative treatments of word-formation. Rather, the functions that other theories ascribe to the Lexicon are distributed among other components of the grammar.

In linguistics, a compound is a lexeme that consists of more than one stem. Compounding, composition or nominal composition is the process of word formation that creates compound lexemes. Compounding occurs when two or more words or signs are joined to make a longer word or sign. Consequently, a compound is a unit composed of more than one stem, forming words or signs. If the joining of the words or signs is orthographically represented with a hyphen, the result is a hyphenated compound. If they are joined without an intervening space, it is a closed compound. If they are joined with a space, then the result – at least in English – may be an open compound.

In linguistics, especially within generative grammar, phi features are the morphological expression of a semantic process in which a word or morpheme varies with the form of another word or phrase in the same sentence. This variation can include person, number, gender, and case, as encoded in pronominal agreement with nouns and pronouns. Several other features are included in the set of phi-features, such as the categorical features ±N (nominal) and ±V (verbal), which can be used to describe lexical categories and case features.

In linguistics, an adverbial phrase ("AdvP") is a multi-word expression operating adverbially: its syntactic function is to modify other expressions, including verbs, adjectives, adverbs, adverbials, and sentences. Adverbial phrases can be divided into two types: complement adverbs and modifier adverbs. For example, in the sentence She sang very well, the expression very well is an adverbial phrase, as it modifies the verb to sing. More specifically, the adverbial phrase very well contains two adverbs, very and well: while well modifies the verb to convey information about the manner of singing, very is a degree modifier that conveys information about the degree to which the action of singing well was accomplished.

In theoretical linguistics, a distinction is made between endocentric and exocentric constructions. A grammatical construction is said to be endocentric if it fulfils the same linguistic function as one of its parts, and exocentric if it does not. The distinction reaches back at least to Bloomfield's work of the 1930s, who based it on terms by Pāṇini and Patañjali in Sanskrit grammar. Such a distinction is possible only in phrase structure grammars, since in dependency grammars all constructions are necessarily endocentric.

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In linguistics, volition is a concept that distinguishes whether the subject, or agent of a particular sentence intended an action or not. Simply, it is the intentional or unintentional nature of an action. Volition concerns the idea of control and for the purposes outside of psychology and cognitive science, is considered the same as intention in linguistics. Volition can then be expressed in a given language using a variety of possible methods. These sentence forms usually indicate that a given action has been done intentionally, or willingly. There are various ways of marking volition cross-linguistically. When using verbs of volition in English, like "want" or "prefer", these verbs are not expressly marked. Other languages handle this with affixes, while others have complex structural consequences of volitional or non-volitional encoding.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Saaroa language</span> Austronesian language spoken in Taiwan

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">English prepositions</span> Prepositions in the English language

English prepositions are words – such as of, in, on, at, from, etc. – that function as the head of a prepositional phrase, and most characteristically license a noun phrase object. Semantically, they most typically denote relations in space and time. Morphologically, they are usually simple and do not inflect. They form a closed lexical category.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">English adverbs</span>

English adverbs are words such as so, just, how, well, also, very, even, only, really, and why that head adverb phrases, and whose most typical members function as modifiers in verb phrases and clauses, along with adjective and adverb phrases. The category is highly heterogeneous, but a large number of the very typical members are derived from adjectives + the suffix -ly and modify any word, phrase or clause other than a noun. Adverbs form an open lexical category in English. They do not typically license or function as complements in other phrases. Semantically, they are again highly various, denoting manner, degree, duration, frequency, domain, modality, and much more.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">English determiners</span> Determiners in the English language

English determiners are words – such as the, a, each, some, which, this, and numerals such as six – that are most commonly used with nouns to specify their referents. The determiners form a closed lexical category in English.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">English adjectives</span> Adjectives in the English language

English adjectives form a large open category of words in English which, semantically, tend to denote properties such as size, colour, mood, quality, age, etc. with such members as other, big, new, good, different, Cuban, sure, important, and right. Adjectives head adjective phrases, and the most typical members function as modifiers in noun phrases. Most adjectives either inflect for grade or combine with more and most to form comparatives and superlatives. They are characteristically modifiable by very. A large number of the most typical members combine with the suffix -ly to form adverbs. Most adjectives function as complements in verb phrases, and some license complements of their own.

References

  1. ↑ Bassiouney, Reem (2009). "Arabic Sociolinguistics". Edinburgh University Press Ltd. doi:10.3366/edinburgh/9780748623730.003.0001.
  2. 1 2 "Arabic Compounds". arabicpath.com. Retrieved 2024-03-23.
  3. ↑ Sanni, Amidu O. "Kees Versteegh, The Arabic Language, Edinburgh, Edinburgh University Press, 2014, in Muslim World Book Review, Vol 35, no 4, 2015, pp. 29-31". Edinburgh University Press.
  4. ↑ Holes, Clive (2004). Modern Arabic: Structures, Functions, and Varieties. Georgetown University Press. ISBN   978-1-58901-022-2.
  5. ↑ Suparno, Darsita; Wardhani, Yani’ah; Nuryana, Agus; Nuryani. "Compound Words in Arabic Mechanical Term" (PDF). Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research.
  6. ↑ Altakhaineh, Abdel Rahman Mitib (2016). "Identifying Arabic compounds other than the Synthetic Genitive Construction". Acta Linguistica Hungarica. 63 (3): 277–298. ISSN   1216-8076.
  7. ↑ Altakhaineh, Abdel Rahman Mitib (2016). "What is a compound? The main criteria for compoundhood". Explorations in English Language and Linguistics. 4 (1): 58–86. doi:10.1515/exell-2017-0007. ISSN   2303-4858.
  8. 1 2 3 Altakhaineh, Abdel Rahman Mitib; Zibin, Aseel (2018-01-01). "Verb + verb compound and serial verb construction in JA and English". Lingua. 201: 45–56. doi:10.1016/j.lingua.2017.08.010. ISSN   0024-3841.
  9. 1 2 Altakhaineh, Abdel Rahman Mitib Salim. "Compounding in Modern Standard Arabic, Jordanian Arabic and English" (PDF). Newcastle University .
  10. ↑ Al-Jallad, Ahmad (2015-03-20), "An Outline of the Grammar of the Safaitic Inscriptions", An Outline of the Grammar of the Safaitic Inscriptions, Brill, ISBN   978-90-04-28982-6 , retrieved 2024-03-22
  11. ↑ Wright, William; Caspari, Carl Paul (2011-03-01). A Grammar of the Arabic Language (PDF). Cosimo, Inc. ISBN   978-1-61640-533-5.
  12. ↑ Al-Tonsi; Al-Batal. "Ahlan wa Sahlan: Functional Modern Standard Arabic for Beginners". Yale University Press.
  13. ↑ Altakhaineh, Abdel Rahman Mitib (2023-12-31). "The Conceptual Relationships in N+N Compounds in Arabic Compared to English". Cognitive Studies | Études cognitives (23). doi: 10.11649/cs.2849 . ISSN   2392-2397.

Bibliography

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