Attack on Reginald Denny

Last updated

Attack on Reginald Denny
Part of 1992 Los Angeles riots
Florence and Normandie.jpg
Looking east from the southwestern corner of Florence and Normandie Avenues, in March 2010
DateApril 29, 1992
Time6:46 pm
Location Los Angeles, California, U.S.
Coordinates 33°58′28″N118°18′01″W / 33.974577°N 118.300285°W / 33.974577; -118.300285
TargetReginald Denny

Reginald Oliver Denny (born 1953) is a former construction truck driver who was pulled from his truck and severely beaten during the 1992 Los Angeles riots. His attackers, a group of black men who came to be known as the "L.A. Four", targeted Denny because he was white. The attack was captured on video by a news helicopter and broadcast live on U.S. national television.

Contents

Four other black L.A. residents who had witnessed the attack on live television came to Denny's aid, placing him back in his truck and driving him to the hospital. Denny suffered a fractured skull and impairment of his speech and his ability to walk, for which he underwent years of rehabilitative therapy. After unsuccessfully suing the City of Los Angeles, Denny moved to Arizona, where he worked as an independent boat mechanic and has mostly avoided media contact.

Background

On March 3, 1991, an amateur video recording showed Rodney King, a black motorist, being badly beaten by Los Angeles Police Department officers during an arrest. The outrage resulting from the acquittal of these police officers was the principal cause of the 1992 Los Angeles riots. [1]

Born in 1953 in Lansing, Michigan, [2] [1] Reginald Oliver Denny was a 39-year-old truck driver at the time of the attack. [3] His parents moved to Sylmar, Los Angeles, when he was a child. [4]

Attack

Damian Williams throwing a cinder block at Denny's head, then executing a football-style victory dance. DennyAttack.png
Damian Williams throwing a cinder block at Denny's head, then executing a football-style victory dance.

On April 29, 1992, at 5:39 p.m., Denny loaded his red dump truck with 27 short tons (24 t) of sand to be delivered to a plant in Inglewood. On the way, he left the Harbor Freeway and took a familiar shortcut along Florence Avenue. [3] [4] He was listening to the radio, "probably KKLA, a Christian channel," Denny said, "or country station KZLA." [4] At 6:46 p.m., after he entered the intersection of Florence and Normandie Avenue, rioters threw rocks at his windows, and he heard people shouting for him to stop, forcing him to do so in the middle of the street. [3]

Video footage taken from a helicopter by freelance journalists Bob Tur and Marika Gerrard showed Denny being pulled from his truck and beaten with fists, kicked, and struck with a cinder block before being rescued by four nearby residents. [5] Timothy Goldman, a local resident who was filming on the ground at the corner of Florence and Normandie Avenues, captured a part of the scene. [6] The attack has been described as a hate crime [7] in which Denny, a white man, was targeted for his race in response to police brutality against King and the belief that the criminal justice system had failed to protect King's civil rights. [8]

Antoine Miller climbed up and opened the truck door, giving an unidentified man the chance to pull Denny out and throw him on the ground. Henry Watson stood on Denny's neck to hold him down as a group of men surrounded him and Anthony Brown kicked him in the abdomen. [9] [3] As Watson walked away, two other unidentified men joined in the attack: one hurled a five-pound oxygenator stolen from Larry Tarvin's truck at Denny's head, [10] and the other kicked him and hit him with a claw hammer. [9] News footage showed Damian Williams throwing a cinder block at Denny's head, then doing a football-style victory dance in the road and gesticulating gang signs. [3] [11] After the beating ended, some men threw beer bottles at the unconscious body and a man searched Denny's back pockets, taking his wallet. [9] [3] Tur and Gerrard, observing the beating from their helicopter, reported that there were no police in the area. [5]

Four black residents of South Central Los Angeles, Bobby Green Jr., Lei Yuille, Titus Murphy, and Terri Barnett, who had been watching the events on television, came to Denny's aid. [2] [12] [13] Green, also a truck driver, [14] boarded Denny's truck and drove him to the Daniel Freeman Hospital in Inglewood. [4] Paramedics who attended to Denny said he suffered major trauma and came very close to dying. Soon after Green took him to the hospital, Denny suffered a seizure. His skull was fractured in 91 places and pushed into his brain. [15] [3] His left eye was so badly dislocated that it would have fallen into his sinus cavity had the surgeons not replaced the crushed bone with a piece of plastic. [16] A crater remained in his forehead despite efforts to correct it. [3]

The "L.A. Four"

The "L.A. Four" was a nickname given to the first four men charged with the attack on Denny: Damian Williams, Henry Watson, Antoine Miller, and Gary Williams. [17]

Damian Monroe Williams (born March 17, 1973 [11] ) was considered the most high-profile member of the four. [17] Nicknamed "Football", he was a high-school football star before dropping out in the 10th grade. [11] [18] Williams was identified on the video recording thanks to a large tattoo on his left arm related to the Crips street gang. [3] He was mentioned in news reports and court records as a member of the 71 Hustlers, an affiliation of the Eight Trey Gangster Crips. Williams had several juvenile arrests but no convictions. His friends recalled him as being generous to children and devoted to caring for an older brother who had been beaten in a robbery. [11] Williams faced the most serious charges of the four, including attempted murder, assault, and aggravated mayhem. His jury acquitted him on those charges and instead convicted him of only four misdemeanors and simple mayhem. He was given the maximum sentence of 10 years, but was paroled after serving four years. [11] After his release, he was convicted in 2003 of second degree murder for his role in the 2000 killing of Grover Tinner, which took place at a house suspected of being used for selling narcotics. The victim's sister disputed that Williams had shot at Tinner, and a coalition of community and religious leaders demanded his release, saying he was being targeted because of his involvement in the Denny case. He was ultimately convicted for participating in a crime resulting in a homicide and sentenced to 41 years in prison. [11] As of 2007 he was incarcerated in Pelican Bay State Prison. [11] [18]

Henry Keith Watson was a 27-year-old former US Marine and ex-convict who had served time for armed robbery. After his release from prison, he married, had a daughter, and was working two jobs at the time of the attack. [19]

Antoine Eugene Miller (May 5, 1972 – February 8, 2004) was a 19-year-old who lived with Damian Williams' family. Miller's mother was not able to care for him, so as a child, Miller was sent to live with his grandmother. When he was 12, his grandmother killed his grandfather during an argument and was convicted of his murder, leaving Miller homeless. Miller had previously been arrested for misdemeanor drug charges, joyriding, and failing to appear in court. [19] Miller was shot and killed at age 31 in a Hollywood nightclub in February 2004. [20]

Gary Anthony Williams was a 33-year-old man described as a "drifter" and a "hustler" who begged at a local gas station. Although he claimed to work there, his arrest record listed him as unemployed. [19]

Trials

On May 12, outgoing Los Angeles police chief Daryl Gates started a search for three of Denny's attackers, who were identified from the video of the beating. Gates himself arrested Damian Williams, while other officers arrested Henry Watson and Antoine Miller. [21] Soon afterward, Gary Williams gave himself up to the police. The four arrested men were suspected to be part of the 83 Gangster Crips. [22]

Defense attorney Johnnie Cochran was first asked to represent the men accused, but he refused. When offered to represent Denny, he obliged. [23]

Judge John W. Ouderkirk granted Miller a separate trial on the grounds that the strong evidence against Watson and Damian Williams could harm his case; Miller was sentenced to 17 months in jail and 27 months on probation. [24] Gary Williams was sentenced to three years in jail for attempting to rob Denny and assaulting another man. [25]

Edi M.O. Faal was Damian Williams' defense attorney, and Earl C. Broadly was Henry Watson's. On July 28, 1993, Watson's and Williams' trial began. The two were charged with the assault of Denny as well as five other motorists and two firefighters who were driving past the intersection of Florence and Normandie shortly after the start of the Los Angeles riots on April 29. At the trial, Denny faced his attackers for the first time since they had assaulted him. On August 12, 1993, a jury of five whites, three blacks, three latinos, and one asian was chosen.[ citation needed ]

On August 19, Deputy District Attorney Lawrence Morrison delivered the opening statement and a week later, the videotape of the beating was shown. The doctors who treated Denny testified, describing his wounds and their efforts to repair them. Next to testify were witnesses of the beating and Denny's rescuers. The prosecution rested on September 17, 1993. The defense began pleading on September 20, making a case for unpremeditated assault, with Faal challenging the video evidence and portraying Williams as a victim of poverty and racism. In the closing arguments, the defense attorneys claimed that Williams and Watson were being used as scapegoats for the L.A. riots. The prosecution counter-argued that the two had knowingly tried to kill Denny and were not victims. [15]

Williams' lawyers successfully argued that he had not intended to kill Denny; [18] he was found not guilty of attempted murder, assault, and aggravated mayhem, and convicted of four misdemeanors and simple mayhem, while Watson was convicted of a single misdemeanor assault charge. [11] During a break in the trial, Denny approached Williams' mother, Georgiana, and hugged her. [2] Watson was given credit for time served and was sentenced to three years' probation for the assaults of Denny and truck driver Larry Tarvin. Williams was denied bail and sentenced to a maximum of ten years for the assaults of Denny and four other people on December 7, 1993. [26]

Aftermath

Denny sought to soothe racial tensions associated with his assault, reminding reporters that most of his rescuers were black, as were the doctors who treated him. [2] He became friends with the four persons that saved him, and Green was hired by Denny's employer Transit Mixed. [4] Denny also sought to make peace with his attackers' families, [12] saying that Watson had "been through quite enough" having been jailed for 17 months awaiting trial. [2] Watson later apologized to Denny during an appearance on the Phil Donahue Show , [27] where the pair shook hands. [2] [27]

As a result of the injuries he suffered during the attacks, Denny had to undergo years of rehabilitative therapy, and his speech and ability to walk were also damaged. [2] [12] During his recovery, he received over 27,000 get-well cards from supportive members of the community. [28] After unsuccessfully suing the city of Los Angeles, Denny moved to Arizona to work as an independent boat motor mechanic. Denny has largely avoided the media and rarely spoken publicly about his ordeal. [2] [12]

In 1997, Damian Williams was released from prison early for good behavior, but in 2003, he was sentenced to 46 years to life in prison for the 2000 murder of drug dealer Grover Tinner. [29] As of 2017, he is incarcerated at Centinela State Prison. [30] Watson was re-arrested and sentenced to three years for a narcotics conviction and, after his release, owned and operated a limousine service in Los Angeles. [27] On February 1, 2004, Antoine Miller was shot outside of a Hollywood nightclub during an altercation and died in Cedars-Sinai Medical Center on February 8 at the age of 31. [24] Gary Williams, Henry Watson, and Damian Williams gave interviews about the riots for the 2017 documentary Let It Fall: Los Angeles 1982–1992 . [31] [ not specific enough to verify ]

Video footage of Denny's beating was taken from a helicopter by Bob Tur and Marika Gerrard, [5] [32] freelance reporters who ran the independent Los Angeles News Service (LANS). LANS sued several television stations that rebroadcast their footage for copyright infringement; at least one of these lawsuits was successful. [33] [34]

In July 2006, LANS sued the YouTube in the United States District Court for the Central District of California, for copyright infringement. LANS alleged in the lawsuit that, in the space of one week, a version of the video uploaded by a YouTube user was viewed over 1,000 times via the site. They argued this hurt their ability to license the video. YouTube requested summary judgment based on DMCA safe harbor, which was denied. LANS voluntarily dismissed the case without prejudice, planning to join a class action against YouTube in New York. YouTube appealed both the dismissal and the summary judgment ruling. However, the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit dismissed the appeal. [35] [ non-primary source needed ]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rodney King</span> African American victim of police brutality (1965–2012)

Rodney Glen King was an African-American man who was a victim of police brutality. On March 3, 1991, he was severely beaten by officers of the Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD) during his arrest after a high speed pursuit for driving while intoxicated on the I-210. An uninvolved resident, George Holliday, saw and filmed the incident from his nearby balcony and sent the footage, which showed King on the ground being beaten after initially evading arrest, to local news station KTLA. The incident was covered by news media around the world and caused a public uproar.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Los Angeles Police Department</span> Primary law enforcement agency of Los Angeles, California, United States

The Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD), officially known as the City of Los Angeles Police Department, is the primary law enforcement agency of Los Angeles, California, United States. With 8,832 officers and 3,000 civilian staff, it is the third-largest municipal police department in the United States, after the New York City Police Department and the Chicago Police Department.

Malice Green was an American resident of Detroit, Michigan who died after being assaulted by Detroit police officers Walter Budzyn and Larry Nevers on November 5, 1992. The official cause of death was ruled to be due to blunt force trauma to his head.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Violence in ice hockey</span> Illegal actions in ice hockey

Violence has been a part of ice hockey since at least the early 1900s. According to the book Hockey: A People's History, in 1904 alone, four players were killed during hockey games from the frequent brawls and violent stickwork.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Daryl Gates</span> American former police chief in Los Angeles (1926–2010)

Daryl Francis Gates was an American police officer who served as chief of the Los Angeles Police Department from 1978 to 1992. His length of tenure in this position was second only to that of William H. Parker. Gates is credited with the creation of SWAT teams alongside fellow Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD) officer John Nelson, who others claim was the originator of SWAT in 1965. Gates also co-founded the Drug Abuse Resistance Education program.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">1992 Los Angeles riots</span> Riots following the beating of Rodney King

The 1992 Los Angeles riots were a series of riots and civil disturbances that occurred in Los Angeles County, California, United States, during April and May 1992. Unrest began in South Central Los Angeles on April 29, after a jury acquitted four officers of the Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD) charged with using excessive force in the arrest and beating of Rodney King. The incident had been videotaped by George Holliday, who was a bystander to the incident, and was heavily broadcast in various news and media outlets.

Bloody Christmas was the severe beating of seven civilians by members of the Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD) on December 25, 1951. The attacks, which left five Mexican American and two white young men with broken bones and ruptured organs, were only properly investigated after lobbying from the Mexican American community. The internal inquiry by Los Angeles Chief of Police William H. Parker resulted in eight police officers being indicted for the assaults, 54 being transferred, and 39 suspended.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Stacey Koon</span> American criminal and former police officer (born 1950)

Stacey Cornell Koon is an American former policeman with the Los Angeles Police Department. He is one of the four policemen who were responsible for beating Rodney King in March 1991. He was sentenced to 2+1⁄2 years in federal prison in 1993 for his role in the beating.

About one to two percent of United States Armed Forces members are estimated to belong to criminal gangs in the United States, a much higher proportion than in the civilian population.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sanyika Shakur</span> American author (1963–2021)

Sanyika Shakur, also known by his former street moniker Monster or Monster Kody, was an American author and former gangster. He was a member of the Los Angeles-based Eight Tray Gangster Crips. He got his nickname as a 13-year-old gang member when he beat and stomped a robbery victim until he was disfigured. Shakur claimed to have reformed in prison, joined the Republic of New Afrika movement, and wrote a 1993 memoir called Monster: The Autobiography of an L.A. Gang Member.

This article lists examples of the ongoing influence on popular culture of the 1992 Los Angeles riots.

<i>Riot</i> (1997 film) 1997 TV movie directed by Galen Yuen

Riot is a 1997 American television film starring Luke Perry and Mario Van Peebles. It was written and directed by four writers and directors of four different racial groups prominent in Los Angeles. The title "Riot" refers to the Los Angeles riots of 1992 that were sparked by the beating of Rodney King, and the subsequent acquittal of the four police officers who beat him.

Twilight: Los Angeles, 1992 is a one-woman play written and originally performed by Anna Deavere Smith, an American actress, playwright and professor. It is about the infamous 1992 Los Angeles riots.

Bob Sipchen is an American journalist, author, educator, and communications professional. He is currently a Senior Editor at the Los Angeles Times and an adjunct professor in the Department of Writing and Rhetoric at Occidental College in Los Angeles. He previously served as Communications Director of the Sierra Club and as Editor-in-Chief of Sierra magazine. He has been part of teams at the Los Angeles Times that have won three Pulitzer Prizes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rodney Alcala</span> American serial killer (1943–2021)

Rodney James Alcala was an American serial killer, rapist, and convicted sex offender who was sentenced to death in California for five murders committed between 1977 and 1979. He also pleaded guilty and received a sentence of 25 years to life for two further murders committed in New York. He was also indicted for a murder in Wyoming, although the charges filed there were dropped. While Alcala has been conclusively linked to eight murders, the true number of victims remains unknown and could be as high as 130.

<i>Let It Fall: Los Angeles 1982–1992</i> 2017 American film

Let It Fall: Los Angeles 1982–1992 is a 2017 American documentary film directed by John Ridley about the decade preceding and including the 1992 Los Angeles riots. It was produced by Lincoln Square Productions, a subsidiary of ABC News, and was released in theaters in Los Angeles and New York on April 21, 2017. A shorter version aired on ABC on April 28, 2017. A rebroadcast of the film took place on June 16, 2020. The film has received critical acclaim.

On August 12, 2017, DeAndre Harris, a Black man, was assaulted by six White men in an attack in a parking garage next to the police headquarters during the Unite the Right rally in Charlottesville, Virginia, United States. Images and video of the assault captured by photojournalist Zach Roberts went viral and became a symbol of the enmity underlying the protest.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ramon Escobar (serial killer)</span> Salvadoran serial killer

Ramon Alberto Escobar is a Salvadoran serial killer who killed seven people during a month-long killing spree between Texas and California in 2018, most of whom were homeless. After pleading guilty, he was convicted and sentenced to life imprisonment, committing a suspected eighth murder while in prison in 2023.

Peter Francis Stager is an American truck driver and convicted criminal who attacked a police officer with a flagpole during the January 6 United States Capitol attacks.

References

  1. 1 2 Benson, Sonia, ed. (2009). "Los Angeles Riots (1992)". UXL Encyclopedia of U.S. History. Cengage. ISBN   978-1-4144-3274-8 – via Encyclopedia.com.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Rosenberg, Charles (2010). "Denny, Reginald (1953–)". In Danver, Steven L. (ed.). Revolts, Protests, Demonstrations, and Rebellions in American History: An Encyclopedia, Volume 3. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO. pp. 1101–1102. ISBN   978-1-59884-222-7.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Devlin, Keith; Lorden, Gary (2007). The Numbers Behind NUMB3RS: Solving Crime with Mathematics. New York: Penguin. pp. 63–66. ISBN   978-1-101-21346-9.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 Sipchen, Bob (December 24, 1992). "Denny--Beaten but Unbowed" . Los Angeles Times.
  5. 1 2 3 Rosenberg, Charles (2010). "Los Angeles Uprising (1992)". In Danver, Steven L. (ed.). Revolts, Protests, Demonstrations, and Rebellions in American History: An Encyclopedia, Volume 3. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO. pp. 1097–8. ISBN   978-1-59884-222-7.
  6. ↑ Jennings, Angel; Hamilton, Matt (April 25, 2017). "At the corner of Florence and Normandie, marking causes of L.A. riots" . Los Angeles Times.
  7. ↑ Free, Marvin D. (1996). African Americans and the Criminal Justice System. Taylor & Francis. p. 202. ISBN   978-0-8153-1982-5. Although undoubtedly some of these hate crimes involved white victims (consider the highly publicized case of Reginald Denny who was dragged from his truck by five African American men and severely beaten after the acquittal of Los Angeles police officers charged with beating Rodney King) [...]
  8. ↑ McLaughlin, K. A.; Malloy, S. M.; Brilliant, K. J.; Lang, C.; et al. (February 2000). Responding to Hate Crime: A Multidisciplinary Curriculum For Law Enforcement and Victim Assistance Professionals (PDF). Newton, Mass.: National Center for Hate Crime Prevention, Education Development Center, Inc. Archived from the original (PDF) on January 10, 2017. During the 1992 riots in Los Angeles, following the acquittal of Los Angeles police officers in the videotaped beating of Rodney King, a group of young black males dragged white truck driver Reginald Denny from the cab of his truck and severely beat him within an inch of his life. This attack has been described as a retaliatory hate crime that occurred in response to the police brutality against Rodney King, and to widespread public perception that the justice system had failed to protect King's civil rights.
  9. 1 2 3 Chermak, Steven; Bailey, Frankie (2007). Crimes and Trials of the Century. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 150. ISBN   978-1-57356-973-6.
  10. ↑ Domanick, J. (2016). Blue: The LAPD and the Battle to Redeem American Policing. Simon & Schuster. p. 3. ISBN   978-1-4516-4110-3.
  11. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Rosenberg, Charles (2010). "Williams, Damian Monroe (1973–)". In Danver, Steven L. (ed.). Revolts, Protests, Demonstrations, and Rebellions in American History: An Encyclopedia, Volume 3. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO. pp. 1105–1106. ISBN   978-1-59884-222-7.
  12. 1 2 3 4 Gray, Madison (April 27, 2007). "The L.A. Riots: 15 Years After Rodney King: Key Figures: Reginald Denny". Time. New York.
  13. ↑ Sastry, Anjuli; Bates, Karen Grigsby (April 26, 2017). "When LA Erupted In Anger: A Look Back At The Rodney King Riots". NPR.
  14. ↑ Gray, Madison (April 27, 2007). "The L.A. Riots: 15 Years After Rodney King: Key Figures: Bobby Green". Time.
  15. 1 2 Windell, J.O. (2015). Looking Back in Crime: What Happened on This Date in Criminal Justice History?. Taylor & Francis. p. 230. ISBN   978-1-4987-0414-4.
  16. ↑ Boyer, Edward J. (August 27, 1993). "Rescuers Describe Saving Beaten and Bloody Denny" . Los Angeles Times.
  17. 1 2 Curry, Fatima; Fancis, Enjoli (April 28, 2017). "'Let It Fall': 'L.A. Four' member speaks about life lessons, 25 years after riots". ABC News.
  18. 1 2 3 Singal, Jesse (April 27, 2007). "The L.A. Riots: 15 Years After Rodney King: Key Figures: Damian Williams". Time.
  19. 1 2 3 Newton, Jim (May 25, 1992). "Denny Suspects Are Thugs to Some, Heroes to Others" . Los Angeles Times.
  20. ↑ Rogers, John (April 26, 2017). "A look at prominent figures in 1992 riot, where they are now". Associated Press.
  21. ↑ "Four arrested in televised riot beating". UPI. May 12, 1992. I wanted very much to personally arrest him, Gates said of the man suspected of hurling a brick at Denny's head April 29. I did that all by myself with the aid of about 200 police officers.
  22. ↑ "Four Arrested in Beating of Trucker During Riots". Sun Sentinel. May 13, 1992.
  23. ↑ Sipchen, Bob (December 20, 1992). "Ready to Fight : Attorney Johnnie Cochran Jr. has built a reputation on controversial police abuse cases. Now he faces heat again with a different sort of challenge--representing Reginald Denny". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved May 9, 2024.
  24. 1 2 Blankstein, Andrew (February 12, 2004). "Man Guilty in '92 Denny Attack Dies" . Los Angeles Times.
  25. ↑ "Man sentenced to three years in Denny case". UPI. March 26, 1993.
  26. ↑ Boyer, Edward J.; Ford, Andrea (December 8, 1993). "Williams Given Maximum 10 Years in Denny Beating" . Los Angeles Times.
  27. 1 2 3 Gray, Madison (April 27, 2007). "The L.A. Riots: 15 Years After Rodney King: Key Figures: Henry Keith Watson". Time.
  28. ↑ Harris, Mark (April 27, 2012). "2002 Interview: Reginald Denny Looks Back on the LA Riots, Get-Well Cards". KNBC.
  29. ↑ Munoz, Hilda (May 3, 2003). "Figure in '92 Riots Convicted of Murder" . Los Angeles Times.
  30. ↑ Jordan, Billie (April 29, 2017). "25 Years After L.A. Riots Damian 'Football' Williams Reflects On His Life And Role In The Rebellion". Eurweb.com.
  31. ↑ "Let It Fall: Los Angeles 1982-1992 | About". ABC Entertainment. Retrieved March 4, 2024.
  32. ↑ Gerdes, Louise I., ed. (2014). "Introduction". The 1992 Los Angeles Riots. Farmington Hills, Mich.: Greenhaven Press. p. 8. ISBN   978-0-7377-7055-1.
  33. ↑ Stim, Rich (n.d.). "Summaries of Fair Use Cases". Stanford Copyright and Fair Use Center. Stanford University. Retrieved March 4, 2024.
  34. ↑ Entertainment Law Reporter. Vol. 19. 1997. p. 17. ISSN   0270-3831.
  35. ↑ "Tur v. YouTube, Inc., No. 07-56683 (9th Cir. 2009)" (PDF). Law.justia.com. Retrieved March 4, 2024.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.