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Inflammation is part of the biological response of body tissues to harmful stimuli,such as pathogens,damaged cells,or irritants. It is a protective response involving immune cells,blood vessels,and molecular mediators. The function of inflammation is to eliminate the initial cause of cell injury,clear out damaged cells and tissues,and initiate tissue repair.
Macrophages are a type of white blood cell of the innate immune system that engulf and digest pathogens,such as cancer cells,microbes,cellular debris,and foreign substances,which do not have proteins that are specific to healthy body cells on their surface. This process is called phagocytosis,which acts to defend the host against infection and injury.
Tumor necrosis factor is an adipokine and a cytokine. TNF is a member of the TNF superfamily,which consists of various transmembrane proteins with a homologous TNF domain.
Amphiregulin,also known as AREG,is a protein synthesized as a transmembrane glycoprotein with 252 aminoacids and it is encoded by the AREG gene. in humans.
The S100 proteins are a family of low molecular-weight proteins found in vertebrates characterized by two calcium-binding sites that have helix-loop-helix ("EF-hand-type") conformation. At least 21 different S100 proteins are known. They are encoded by a family of genes whose symbols use the S100 prefix,for example,S100A1,S100A2,S100A3. They are also considered as damage-associated molecular pattern molecules (DAMPs),and knockdown of aryl hydrocarbon receptor downregulates the expression of S100 proteins in THP-1 cells.
The liver X receptor (LXR) is a member of the nuclear receptor family of transcription factors and is closely related to nuclear receptors such as the PPARs,FXR and RXR. Liver X receptors (LXRs) are important regulators of cholesterol,fatty acid,and glucose homeostasis. LXRs were earlier classified as orphan nuclear receptors,however,upon discovery of endogenous oxysterols as ligands they were subsequently deorphanized.
Toll-like receptor 4 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the TLR4 gene. TLR4 is a transmembrane protein,member of the toll-like receptor family,which belongs to the pattern recognition receptor (PRR) family. Its activation leads to an intracellular signaling pathway NF-κB and inflammatory cytokine production which is responsible for activating the innate immune system.
The fatty-acid-binding proteins (FABPs) are a family of transport proteins for fatty acids and other lipophilic substances such as eicosanoids and retinoids. These proteins are thought to facilitate the transfer of fatty acids between extra- and intracellular membranes. Some family members are also believed to transport lipophilic molecules from outer cell membrane to certain intracellular receptors such as PPAR. The FABPs are intracellular carriers that “solubilize”the endocannabinoid anandamide (AEA),transporting AEA to the breakdown by FAAH,and compounds that bind to FABPs block AEA breakdown,raising its level. The cannabinoids are also discovered to bind human FABPs that function as intracellular carriers,as THC and CBD inhibit the cellular uptake and catabolism of AEA by targeting FABPs. Competition for FABPs may in part or wholly explain the increased circulating levels of endocannabinoids reported after consumption of cannabinoids. Levels of fatty-acid-binding protein have been shown to decline with ageing in the mouse brain,possibly contributing to age-associated decline in synaptic activity.
S100 calcium-binding protein A7 (S100A7),also known as psoriasin,is a protein that in humans is encoded by the S100A7 gene.
Free fatty acid receptor 2(FFAR2),also termed G-protein coupled receptor 43 (GPR43),is a rhodopsin-like G-protein coupled receptor. It is coded by the FFAR2 gene. In humans,the FFAR2 gene is located on the long arm of chromosome 19 at position 13.12. Like other GPCRs,FFAR2s reside on the surface membrane of cells and when bond to one of their activating ligands regulate the function of their parent cells. FFAR2 is a member of a small family of structurally and functionally related GPRs termed free fatty acid receptors (FFARs). This family includes three other receptors which,like FFAR2,are activated by certain fatty acids:FFAR1,FFAR3 (GPR41),and FFAR4 (GPR120). FFAR2 and FFAR3 are activated by short-chain fatty acids whereas FFAR1 and FFAR4 are activated by long-chain fatty acids.
Hydroxycarboxylic acid receptor 2 (HCA2),also known as GPR109A and niacin receptor 1 (NIACR1),is a protein which in humans is encoded (its formation is directed) by the HCAR2 gene and in rodents by the Hcar2 gene. The human HCAR2 gene is located on the long (i.e.,"q") arm of chromosome 12 at position 24.31 (notated as 12q24.31). Like the two other hydroxycarboxylic acid receptors,HCA1 and HCA3,HCA2 is a G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) located on the surface membrane of cells. HCA2 binds and thereby is activated by D-β-hydroxybutyric acid (hereafter termed β-hydroxybutyric acid),butyric acid,and niacin (also known as nicotinic acid). β-Hydroxybutyric and butyric acids are regarded as the endogenous agents that activate HCA2. Under normal conditions,niacin's blood levels are too low to do so:it is given as a drug in high doses in order to reach levels that activate HCA2.
Free Fatty acid receptor 4 (FFAR4),also termed G-protein coupled receptor 120 (GPR120),is a protein that in humans is encoded by the FFAR4 gene. This gene is located on the long arm of chromosome 10 at position 23.33. G protein-coupled receptors reside on their parent cells' surface membranes,bind any one of the specific set of ligands that they recognize,and thereby are activated to trigger certain responses in their parent cells. FFAR4 is a rhodopsin-like GPR in the broad family of GPRs which in humans are encoded by more than 800 different genes. It is also a member of a small family of structurally and functionally related GPRs that include at least three other free fatty acid receptors (FFARs) viz., FFAR1,FFAR2,and FFAR3. These four FFARs bind and thereby are activated by certain fatty acids.
Allograft inflammatory factor 1 (AIF-1) also known as ionized calcium-binding adapter molecule 1 (IBA1) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the AIF1 gene.
C-type lectin domain family 10 member A (CLEC10A) also designated as CD301 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the CLEC10A gene. CLEC10A is part of the C-type lectin superfamily and binds to N-Acetylgalactosamine (GalNAc). It is mainly expressed on myeloid cells and also on oocytes and very early stages of embryogenesis. CLEC10A is used as a marker of the CD1c+ dendritic cell subgroup,also called cDC2. The actions of CLEC10A are diverse,depending on the ligand and environment.
Adipose tissue macrophages (ATMs) comprise tissue resident macrophages present in adipose tissue. Adipose tissue apart from adipocytes is composed of the stromal vascular fraction (SVF) of cells including preadipocytes,fibroblasts,vascular endothelial cells and variety of immune cells. The latter ones are composed of mast cells,eosinophils,B cells,T cells and macrophages. The number of macrophages within adipose tissue differs depending on the metabolic status. As discovered by Rudolph Leibel and Anthony Ferrante et al. in 2003 at Columbia University,the percentage of macrophages within adipose tissue ranges from 10% in lean mice and humans up to 50% in extremely obese,leptin deficient mice and almost 40% in obese humans. Increased number of adipose tissue macrophages correlates with increased adipose tissue production of proinflammatory molecules and might therefore contribute to the pathophysiological consequences of obesity.
The S100 calcium-binding protein mS100a7a15 is the murine ortholog of human S100A7 (Psoriasin) and human S100A15 (Koebnerisin). mS100a7a15 is also known as S100a15,mS100a7 and mS100a7a and is encoded by the mS100a7a gene
Innate lymphoid cells (ILCs) are the most recently discovered family of innate immune cells,derived from common lymphoid progenitors (CLPs). In response to pathogenic tissue damage,ILCs contribute to immunity via the secretion of signalling molecules,and the regulation of both innate and adaptive immune cells. ILCs are primarily tissue resident cells,found in both lymphoid,and non- lymphoid tissues,and rarely in the blood. They are particularly abundant at mucosal surfaces,playing a key role in mucosal immunity and homeostasis. Characteristics allowing their differentiation from other immune cells include the regular lymphoid morphology,absence of rearranged antigen receptors found on T cells and B cells,and phenotypic markers usually present on myeloid or dendritic cells.
Myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSC) are a heterogeneous group of immune cells from the myeloid lineage.
TNF alpha induced protein 8 like 2 (TNFAIP8L2),also known as TIPE2,is a protein that in humans is encoded by the TNFAIP8L2 gene. It is preferentially expressed in human myeloid cell types and serves as an immune checkpoint regulator of inflammation and metabolism.
Apoptosis inhibitor of macrophage (AIM) is a protein produced by macrophages that regulates immune responses and inflammation. It plays a crucial role in key intracellular processes like lipid metabolism and apoptosis.
References
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- ↑ "T32 Grant - The Pathogenesis of Host-Microbe Interactions Training Program - University of Rochester Medical Center". www.urmc.rochester.edu.
- 1 2 "Dr. Bing Li is appointed as Director of the newly formed Iowa Cancer and Obesity Initiative | Department of Pathology". medicine.uiowa.edu.
- ↑ "TEAM". www.bmimmune.life.
- ↑ Coffman, Betty (August 20, 2020). "UofL immunologist summarizes functions of protein family associated with obesity | UofL News".
- 1 2 "Dr. Bing Li appointed University Scholar — School of Medicine University of Louisville". louisville.edu.
- ↑ Jin, Rong; Hao, Jiaqing; Yu, Jianyu; Wang, Pingzhang; Sauter, Edward R.; Li, Bing (January 25, 2023). "Role of FABP5 in T Cell Lipid Metabolism and Function in the Tumor Microenvironment". Cancers. 15 (3): 657. doi: 10.3390/cancers15030657 . PMC 9913835 . PMID 36765614.
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- ↑ "Bing Li | Department of Pathology". medicine.uiowa.edu.
- ↑ "Study provides a SnapShot of FABP proteins linked to obesity". News-Medical.net. August 24, 2020.
- ↑ "News | Page 2 | Department of Pathology". medicine.uiowa.edu.
- ↑ "Metabolic Dysregulation & Cancer Risk Program | EGRP/DCCPS/NCI/NIH". epi.grants.cancer.gov.
- ↑ "SnapShot: FABP Functions: Cell".
- ↑ "FABP4: A New Player in Obesity-Associated Breast Cancer: Trends in Molecular Medicine".
- ↑ "Circulating Adipose Fatty Acid Binding Protein Is a New Link Underlying Obesity-Associated Breast/Mammary Tumor Development: Cell Metabolism".
- ↑ "Expression of Adipocyte/Macrophage Fatty Acid–Binding Protein in Tumor-Associated Macrophages Promotes Breast Cancer Progression".
- ↑ Gyamfi, Jones; Yeo, Joo Hye; Kwon, Doru; Min, Byung Soh; Cha, Yoon Jin; Koo, Ja Seung; Jeong, Joon; Lee, Jinu; Choi, Junjeong (September 24, 2021). "Interaction between CD36 and FABP4 modulates adipocyte-induced fatty acid import and metabolism in breast cancer". npj Breast Cancer. 7 (1): 129. doi:10.1038/s41523-021-00324-7. PMC 8463699 . PMID 34561446.
- ↑ "Fatty Acid-Binding Protein E-FABP Restricts Tumor Growth by Promoting IFN-β Responses in Tumor-Associated Macrophages".
- ↑ "Epidermal Fatty Acid Binding Protein Promotes Skin Inflammation Induced by High-Fat Diet: Immunity".
- ↑ Hao, Jiaqing; Jin, Rong; Zeng, Jun; Hua, Yuan; Yorek, Matthew S.; Liu, Lianliang; Mandal, Anita; Li, Junling; Zheng, Huaiyu; Sun, Yanwen; Yi, Yanmei; Yin, Di; Zheng, Qi; Li, Xiaohong; Ng, Chin K.; Rouchka, Eric C.; Egilmez, Nejat K.; Jabbari, Ali; Li, Bing (December 13, 2022). "Consumption of fish oil high-fat diet induces murine hair loss via epidermal fatty acid binding protein in skin macrophages". Cell Reports. 41 (11): 111804. doi:10.1016/j.celrep.2022.111804. PMC 10193786 . PMID 36516778.
- ↑ Jin, R.; Hao, J.; Yi, Y.; Yin, D.; Hua, Y.; Li, X.; Bao, H.; Han, X.; Egilmez, N. K.; Sauter, E. R.; Li, B. (2021). "Dietary fats high in linoleic acids impair anti-tumor T cell responses by inducing E-FABP-mediated mitochondrial dysfunction - PMC". Cancer Research. 81 (20): 5296–5310. doi:10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-21-0757. PMC 8530923 . PMID 34400394.
- ↑ "Epidermal FABP Prevents Chemical-Induced Skin Tumorigenesis by Regulation of TPA-Induced IFN/p53/SOX2 Pathway in Keratinocytes - Journal of Investigative Dermatology".
- ↑ "Epidermal Fatty Acid‒Binding Protein Mediates Depilatory-Induced Acute Skin Inflammation - Journal of Investigative Dermatology".
- ↑ "Orally Administered Particulate β-Glucan Modulates Tumor-Capturing Dendritic Cells and Improves Antitumor T-Cell Responses in Cancer".
- ↑ "Yeast β-Glucan Amplifies Phagocyte Killing of iC3b-Opsonized Tumor Cells via Complement Receptor 3-Syk-Phosphatidylinositol 3-Kinase Pathway1".
- ↑ "Combined Yeast β-Glucan and Antitumor Monoclonal Antibody Therapy Requires C5a-Mediated Neutrophil Chemotaxis via Regulation of Decay-Accelerating Factor CD55".
- ↑ Li, B.; Wang, Y.; Chen, J.; Wu, H.; Chen, W. (2005). "Identification of a new HLA-A*0201-restricted CD8+ T cell epitope from hepatocellular carcinoma-associated antigen HCA587". Clinical and Experimental Immunology. 140 (2): 310–319. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2249.2005.02786.x. PMC 1809362 . PMID 15807856.
- ↑ Li, Bing; Wu, H. Y.; Qian, X. P.; Li, Y.; Chen, W. F. (2003). "Expression, purification and serological analysis of hepatocellular carcinoma associated antigen HCA587 in insect cells". World Journal of Gastroenterology. 9 (4): 678–682. doi: 10.3748/wjg.v9.i4.678 . PMC 4611427 . PMID 12679909.
- ↑ Li, Bing; Qian, Xiao-Ping; Pang, Xue-Wen; Zou, Wan-Zhong; Wang, Yu-Ping; Wu, Hong-Yan; Chen, Wei-Feng (August 25, 2003). "HCA587 Antigen Expression in Normal Tissues and Cancers: Correlation with Tumor Differentiation in Hepatocellular Carcinoma". Laboratory Investigation. 83 (8): 1185–1192. doi:10.1097/01.lab.0000080605.73839.96. PMID 12920247. S2CID 2149577.