Chigozie Obioma

Last updated

Chigozie Obioma
Chigozie Obioma 2016.jpg
Obioma in 2016
Born1986 (age 37–38) [1]
Akure, Nigeria
Occupation
  • Author
  • poet
  • professor
Alma mater Cyprus International University University of Michigan
Period2011–present
Notable works The Fishermen (2015)
An Orchestra of Minorities (2019)
Website
chigozieobioma.com
Chigozie-Obioma DSC06304.jpg
Chigozie-Obioma DSC06340.jpg
LiteratureXchange Festival
Aarhus (Denmark 2024)
Photo Hreinn Gudlaugsson

Chigozie Obioma (born 1986) is a Nigerian writer who wrote the novels The Fishermen (2015) [2] and An Orchestra of Minorities (2019), [3] both of which were shortlisted for the Booker Prize in their respective years of publication. [4] [5] His work has been translated into more than 30 languages. [6] His third novel, The Road to the Country, was published in 2024, and was described by The Guardian as having "given a voice" to the victims of the Nigerian civil war. [7]

Contents

As of 2021, Obioma was James E. Ryan Associate Professor of English at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln. [8] He now teaches at the University of Georgia as the Helen S. Lanier Distinguished Professor.

Early life and influences

Of Igbo descent, Obioma was born in 1986 [1] into a family of 12 children — seven brothers and four sisters – in Akure, in the south-western part of Nigeria, [9] where he grew up speaking Yoruba, Igbo, and English. [10]

As a child, he was fascinated by Greek myths and British writers, including Shakespeare, John Milton, and John Bunyan. Among African writers, he developed a strong affinity for Wole Soyinka's The Trials of Brother Jero; Cyprian Ekwensi's An African Night's Entertainment; Camara Laye's The African Child ; and D. O. Fagunwa's Ògbójú Ọdẹ nínú Igbó Irúnmalẹ̀ , which he read in its original Yoruba version. [11]

Obioma cites his seminal influences as The Palm-Wine Drinkard by Amos Tutuola, for its breadth of imagination; Tess of the d'Urbervilles by Thomas Hardy, for its enduring grace and heart; The God of Small Things by Arundhati Roy and Lolita by Vladimir Nabokov, both for the power of their prose; and Arrow of God by Chinua Achebe, for its firmness in Igbo culture and philosophy. [12]

Education

Obioma was awarded a residency at Omi's Ledig House in 2012, [9] and completed a Master of Fine Arts in Creative Writing at the University of Michigan, where he received Hopwood Awards for fiction (2013) [13] and poetry (2014). [14]

Career and other activities

In December 2020 Obioma was named as a judge for the 2021 Booker Prize. [15]

He served as the James E. Ryan Associate Professor of English at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln. [8]

In January 2023, Obioma announced the Oxbelly Writers Retreat, a writers retreat that he had founded with the vision of bringing writers from all over the world, no matter their means or origin, to come together, share and put their ideas together. [16]

As of 2024, he is Helen S. Lanier Distinguished Professor of English at the University of Georgia.

Writing

The Fishermen

Obioma finished his first novel, The Fishermen , while completing his residency at Ledig House in 2012. [9] It was published in 2015, and won many accolades. It was listed as a 2015 New York Times Sunday Book Review Notable Book, [17] a New York Times Sunday Book Review Editor's Choice selection, [18] and a best book of the year for 2015 by The Observer (UK), [19] The Economist , [20] The Financial Times , [21] The Wall Street Journal , [22] Apple/iBook, Book Riot, [23] the Minnesota Star Tribune , [24] NPR, Library Journal , Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, the New Zealand Listener, Relevant Magazine, British GQ, and others. [25] The Fishermen was also named one of the American Library Association's five best debuts of spring 2015, [26] a Publishers Weekly book of the week, [27] and one of Kirkus Reviews ′ "10 Novels to Lose Yourself In." [28] In December 2019 it was named one of the best books of the decade by the Australian Broadcasting Corporation's Radio National's "book experts", Kate Evans and Sarah L'Estrange. [29]

It won several awards: the FT/OppenheimerFunds Emerging Voices Award, the NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Literary Work – Debut Author, the Los Angeles Times Art Seidenbaum Award for First Fiction, [30] the Nebraska Book Award For Fiction 2016, and the Earphones Award for the Audiobook of The Fishermen. [31]

Obioma states that, in addition to being a tribute to his siblings, the novel aims to "build a portrait of Nigeria at a very seminal moment in its history (the annulled presidential elections of 1993), and by so doing deconstruct and illuminate the ideological potholes that still impede the nation's progress even today." [11] He began writing the novel in 2009, while living in Cyprus to complete his bachelor's degree at Cyprus International University, [32] where he graduated at the top of his class. [33] The idea for the novel came when he reflected on his father's joy at the growing bond between his two eldest brothers who, as children, had maintained a strong rivalry that would sometimes culminate in fistfights. As Obioma began pondering what was the worst that could have happened at that time, the image of the Agwu family came to him. Then he created Abulu as the facilitator of conflict between the brothers. On a larger thematic note, Obioma wanted the novel to comment on the socio-political situation of Nigeria: the prophesying madman here being the British, and the recipients of the vision being the people of Nigeria (three major tribes cohabiting to form a nation). [9]

New Perspectives theatre company presented a stage adaptation of The Fishermen adapted by Gbolahan Obisesan from 2018. [34]

An Orchestra of Minorities

Little, Brown and Company published Obioma's highly anticipated second novel, An Orchestra of Minorities, in January 2019. [35] Drawing on Obioma's own experiences studying abroad in northern Cyprus, An Orchestra of Minorities tells the story of a Nigerian poultry farmer who, determined to make money to prove himself worthy of the woman he loves, travels to northern Cyprus, where he is confronted by racism and scammed by corrupt middlemen. [36] [37] Obioma was particularly inspired by his friend Jay, who was found dead at the bottom of a lift shaft in Cyprus after having his tuition funds embezzled by fixers. [36] [38]

The novel was listed as an E! online Top 20 Books to read in 2020 and a New York Times Editor's Choice. It was also named a best book of the year for 2019 by the BBC, Houston Chronicle, Financial Times, TIME, Amazon.com, Publishers Weekly, Minnesota Star Tribune, Waterstones, ChannelsTV, Columbia Tribune, New York Library, Manchester Union, and Brittlepaper, as well as being Salman Rushdie's Celebrity Pick of the Year.

The Road to the Country

Obioma's third novel, The Road to the Country (2024), centres on the Nigerian civil war. A review by Aminatta Forna in The Guardian states: "It is not clear what to take from the book, except that war is brutal. The reader is left with a feeling of pain for the lives wantonly destroyed, for mothers and fathers bereft of sons and daughters, for a country still healing more than 50 years later. The Road to the Country is a literary quest, the hope being that fictional invention will be more convincing than any history book, a vital part of the attempt to keep the past as living memory. In this, Obioma has succeeded masterfully." [7] According to Blake Morrison, writing in The London Review of Books : "As Obioma sees it, The Road to the Country isn't 'wartime fiction' like Half of a Yellow Sun , which follows characters (mostly middle-class) living through a war, but 'war fiction', where the focus is on the people doing the fighting rather than civilians." [39]

Other publications

Obioma has published several short stories: a short story version of The Fishermen in Virginia Quarterly Review , [40] "The Great Convert" in Transition magazine, [41] "Midnight Sun" in the New Statesman , [42] and "The Strange Story of the World" on Granta.com. [43] He has also published several essays: "The Audacity of Prose" in The Millions ; [44] "Teeth Marks: The Translator's Dilemma" in Poets & Writers; [45] "Finding The Light Under The Bushel: How One Writer Came To Love Books" in The New York Times; and "The Ghosts of My Student Years in Northern Cyprus," "Lagos is expected to double in size in 15 years: how will my city possibly cope?", "Africa Has Been Failed By Westernisation," "Life-Saving Optimism: What the West Can Learn From Africa," and "Toni Morrison: Farewell to America's Greatest Writer" in The Guardian .

Bibliography

Awards and recognition

In a 2015 review in The New York Times , Obioma was called "the heir to Chinua Achebe". [46] In the same year, he was named one of "100 Global Thinkers" by Foreign Policy magazine. [47]

For An Orchestra of Minorities:

For The Fishermen:

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">International Booker Prize</span> International literary award

The International Booker Prize is an international literary award hosted in the United Kingdom. The introduction of the International Prize to complement the Man Booker Prize, as the Booker Prize was then known, was announced in June 2004. Sponsored by the Man Group, from 2005 until 2015 the award was given every two years to a living author of any nationality for a body of work published in English or generally available in English translation. It rewarded one author's "continued creativity, development and overall contribution to fiction on the world stage", and was a recognition of the writer's body of work rather than any one title.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nigerian literature</span>

Nigerian literature may be roughly defined as the literary writing by citizens of the nation of Nigeria for Nigerian readers, addressing Nigerian issues. This encompasses writers in a number of languages, including not only English but Igbo, Urhobo, Yoruba, and in the northern part of the county Hausa and Nupe. More broadly, it includes British Nigerians, Nigerian Americans and other members of the African diaspora.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ann Patchett</span> American novelist and memoirist (born 1963)

Ann Patchett is an American author. She received the 2002 PEN/Faulkner Award and the Orange Prize for Fiction in the same year, for her novel Bel Canto. Patchett's other novels include The Patron Saint of Liars (1992), Taft (1994), The Magician's Assistant (1997), Run (2007), State of Wonder (2011), Commonwealth (2016), The Dutch House (2019), and Tom Lake (2023). The Dutch House was a finalist for the 2020 Pulitzer Prize for Fiction.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ben Lerner</span> American writer

Benjamin S. Lerner is an American poet, novelist, essayist, and critic. The recipient of fellowships from the Fulbright, Guggenheim, and MacArthur Foundations, Lerner has been a finalist for the National Book Award for Poetry, the National Book Critics Circle Award in fiction, and the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction, among many other honors. Lerner teaches at Brooklyn College, where he was named a Distinguished Professor of English in 2016.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rachel Cusk</span> British writer (born 1967)

Rachel Cusk FRSL is a British novelist and writer.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Helon Habila</span> Nigerian novelist and poet (born 1967)

Helon Habila Ngalabak is a Nigerian novelist and poet, whose writing has won many prizes, including the Caine Prize in 2001. He worked as a lecturer and journalist in Nigeria before moving in 2002 to England, where he was a Chevening Scholar at the University of East Anglia, and now teaches creative writing at George Mason University, Fairfax, Virginia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bernardine Evaristo</span> English author and academic (born 1959)

Bernardine Anne Mobolaji Evaristo is an English author and academic. Her novel Girl, Woman, Other jointly won the Booker Prize in 2019 alongside Margaret Atwood's The Testaments, making her the first Black woman to win the Booker. Evaristo is Professor of Creative Writing at Brunel University London and President of the Royal Society of Literature, the second woman and the first black person to hold the role since it was founded in 1820.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Maaza Mengiste</span> Ethiopian-American writer (born 1974)

Maaza Mengiste is an Ethiopian-American writer. Her novels include Beneath the Lion's Gaze (2010) and The Shadow King (2019), which was shortlisted for the 2020 Booker Prize.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Diana Evans</span> British novelist, journalist and critic (born 1972)

Diana Omo Evans FRSL is a British novelist, journalist and critic who was born and lives in London. Evans has written four full-length novels. Her first novel, 26a, published in 2005, won the Orange Award for New Writers, the Betty Trask Award and the deciBel Writer of the Year award. Her third novel Ordinary People was shortlisted for the 2019 Women's Prize for Fiction and won the 2019 South Bank Sky Arts Award for Literature. A House for Alice was published in 2023.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chinelo Okparanta</span> Nigerian-American writer

Chinelo Okparanta is a Nigerian-American novelist and short-story writer. She was born in Port Harcourt, Nigeria, where she was raised until the age of 10, when she emigrated to the United States with her family.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Namwali Serpell</span> Zambian feminist academic and writer (born 1980)

Namwali Serpell is an American and Zambian writer who teaches in the United States. In April 2014, she was named on Hay Festival's Africa39 list of 39 sub-Saharan African writers aged under 40 with the potential and talent to define trends in African literature. Her short story "The Sack" won the 2015 Caine Prize for African fiction in English. In 2020, Serpell won the Belles-lettres category Grand Prix of Literary Associations 2019 for her debut novel The Old Drift.

<i>The Fishermen</i> (Obioma novel) 2015 novel by Chigozie Obioma

The Fishermen is the debut novel by Nigerian author Chigozie Obioma, published in 2015. The novel follows four brothers in a quiet neighbourhood of a Nigerian town, who were given a violent prophecy which shakes their family to the core. It is set in the 1990s, during the rule of Sani Abacha.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ayobami Adebayo</span> Nigerian writer (born 1988)

Ayọ̀bámi Adébáyọ̀ is a Nigerian writer. Her 2017 debut novel, Stay With Me, won the 9mobile Prize for Literature and the Prix Les Afriques. She was awarded The Future Awards Africa Prize for Arts and Culture in 2017.

Jowhor Ile is a Nigerian writer known for his first novel, And After Many Days. In 2016, the novel was awarded the Etisalat Prize for Literature.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Akwaeke Emezi</span> Nigerian writer and video artist (born 1987)

Akwaeke Emezi is a Nigerian fiction writer and video artist, best known for their novels Freshwater (2018) and Pet and the New York Times bestselling work The Death of Vivek Oji. Emezi is a generalist who writes speculative fiction, romance, memoir, and poetry for both young adults and adults with mostly LGBT themes. Their work has earned them several awards and nominations including the Otherwise Award and Commonwealth Short Story Prize. In 2021, Time featured them as a Next Generation Leader.

<i>An Orchestra of Minorities</i> 2019 novel by Chigozie Obioma

An Orchestra of Minorities is a 2019 novel by Chigozie Obioma. It is his second novel after his debut, The Fishermen. It is a modern twist of the Odyssey and Igbo cosmology. The novel's narrator is a deceased spirit chi.

<i>At Night All Blood Is Black</i> 2018 novel by David Diop

At Night All Blood Is Black is a novel by French author David Diop. First published in French on August 16, 2018, by Éditions du Seuil, it won the Prix Goncourt des Lycéens that same year.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">2021 Booker Prize</span> British literary award given in 2021

The 2021 Booker Prize for Fiction was announced on 3 November 2021, during a ceremony at the BBC Radio Theatre. The longlist was announced on 27 July 2021. The shortlist was announced on 14 September 2021. The Prize – which was chosen from 158 novels published in the UK or Ireland between 1 October 2020 and 30 September 2021 – was awarded to Damon Galgut for his novel, The Promise, receiving £50,000. Shortlisted twice before, Galgut is the third South African to win the prize, after J. M. Coetzee and Nadine Gordimer.

<i>Be(com)ing Nigerian</i> 2019 novel by Elnathan John

Becoming Nigerian styled as Be(com)ing Nigerian: A Guide is a 2019 novel by Nigerian satirist Elnathan John. It is his second novel. It was published in 2019 by Cassava Republic.

References

  1. 1 2 "Chigozie Obioma". Scribe Publications. Retrieved 27 March 2021.
  2. ↑ Habila, Helon (13 March 2015). "The Fishermen by Chigozie Obioma review – four brothers and a terrible prophecy". The Guardian. Retrieved 29 May 2020.
  3. ↑ Cummins, Anthony (15 January 2019). "An Orchestra of Minorities by Chigozie Obioma – review". The Observer. ISSN   0029-7712 . Retrieved 29 May 2020.
  4. ↑ "The Man Booker Prize for Fiction 2015 shortlist is revealed | The Booker Prizes". thebookerprizes.com. Retrieved 13 September 2019.
  5. ↑ "The 2019 Booker Prize Shortlist announced | The Booker Prizes". thebookerprizes.com. Retrieved 13 September 2019.
  6. ↑ Booy, Simon Van (16 June 2020). "Chigozie Obioma: The WD Interview". Writer's Digest. Retrieved 27 March 2021.
  7. 1 2 Forna, Aminatta (23 May 2024). "The Road to the Country by Chigozie Obioma review – a brutal journey". The Guardian. ISSN   0261-3077 . Retrieved 5 July 2024.
  8. 1 2 "Chigozie Obioma". University of Nebraska-Lincoln . Retrieved 27 March 2021.
  9. 1 2 3 4 "2, 2 and 2: Chigozie Obioma talks about The Fishermen". looking up/looking down. 23 February 2015.
  10. ↑ Go, Nathan (9 April 2015). "Of Animal Metaphors and the British Legacy: An Interview with Chigozie Obioma". Michigan Quarterly Review.
  11. 1 2 Lappin, Elena, "Q&A With Chigozie Obioma" Archived 22 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine , Pushkin Press, November 2014.
  12. ↑ "Ask the Author: Chigozie Obioma", New York Public Library.
  13. ↑ The Hopwood Newsletter Archived 4 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine , Vol. LXXIV, 2, July 2013.
  14. ↑ The Hopwood Newsletter Archived 4 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine , Vol. LXXV, 2, July 2014.
  15. ↑ Campbell, Joel (21 December 2020). "Chigozie Obioma's on the judges panel for 2021 Booker Prize". The Voice .
  16. ↑ Mag, Open Country (17 January 2023). "Apply to Oxbelly's Episodic Program and Retreat for Literary and TV Writers". Open Country Mag. Retrieved 20 January 2023.
  17. ↑ "100 Notable Books of 2015". The New York Times. 27 November 2015. ISSN   0362-4331 . Retrieved 5 June 2016.
  18. ↑ "Editors' Choice", New York Times Sunday Book Review, 24 April 2015.
  19. ↑ "£50,000 Booker Prize: Nigerian Novelist, Chigozie Obioma, Shortlisted Again - P.M. News". www.pmnewsnigeria.com. Retrieved 29 May 2020.
  20. ↑ Okoh, Lize (2 May 2018). "The Top West African Diaspora Authors You Must Read". Culture Trip. Retrieved 29 May 2020.
  21. ↑ "Chigozie Obioma — Emerging Voices 2015 fiction winner". www.ft.com. 6 October 2015. Retrieved 29 May 2020.
  22. ↑ "West End Transfer for The Fishermen". www.newperspectives.co.uk. 25 March 2019. Retrieved 29 May 2020.
  23. ↑ "Chigozie Obioma | Department of English | Nebraska". www.unl.edu. Retrieved 29 May 2020.
  24. ↑ "Two Nigerian novelists make 2019 Booker Prize shortlist » Achievers » Tribune Online". Tribune Online. 7 September 2019. Retrieved 29 May 2020.
  25. ↑ "Nigerian Novelist, Chigozie Obioma, Shortlisted Again for Booker Prize -". The NEWS. 3 September 2019. Retrieved 29 May 2020.
  26. ↑ "AAP/LibraryReads: Debut Authors Panel". ala.org. Archived from the original on 13 July 2015. Retrieved 31 July 2015.
  27. ↑ "PW Picks: Books of the Week, April 13, 2015". Publishers Weekly. 10 April 2015.
  28. ↑ "10 Novels to Lose Yourself In (pg. 1)". Kirkus Reviews.
  29. ↑ Evans, Kate; L'Estrange, Sarah (29 December 2019). "Best books of the decade: The non-definitive, highly subjective list". ABC News. Retrieved 18 January 2020.
  30. ↑ "Chigozie Obioma". Craig Literary. Retrieved 6 November 2020.
  31. ↑ "The Fishermen (2015)". Chigozie Obioma. Retrieved 6 November 2020.
  32. ↑ Obioma, Chigozie (16 January 2016), "The ghosts of my student years in northern Cyprus", The Guardian.
  33. ↑ Sayfa, Ana (26 February 2015). "Former CIU Student Publishes Novel to International Acclaim". UKÜ Haber Ajansı. CIU News Agency.
  34. ↑ "The Fishermen - New Perspectives". New Perspectives. Retrieved 2 April 2019.
  35. ↑ Cowdrey, Katherine (27 April 2017). "Chigozie Obioma's modern epic to Little, Brown". www.thebookseller.com. Retrieved 1 June 2018.
  36. 1 2 Brockes, Emma (18 January 2019). "'Why Jay?': Chigozie Obioma on the haunting death that inspired his novel". The Guardian. ISSN   0261-3077 . Retrieved 18 January 2019.
  37. ↑ Rakoczy, Agnieszka (20 December 2017). "Novelist's African dream". Cyprus Mail. Retrieved 18 January 2019.
  38. ↑ Obioma, Chigozie (16 January 2016). "Chigozie Obioma: the ghosts of my student years in northern Cyprus". The Guardian. ISSN   0261-3077 . Retrieved 18 January 2019.
  39. ↑ Morrison, Blake (18 July 2024). "Doing It in Hellfire". London Review of Books. Vol. 46, no. 14. Retrieved 3 November 2024.
  40. ↑ Obioma, Chigozie. "Fishermen". vqronline.org.
  41. ↑ Obioma (2014). "The Great Convert • Fiction". Transition (114): 146–162. doi:10.2979/transition.114.146. JSTOR   10.2979/transition.114.146.
  42. ↑ Obioma, Chigozie (14 August 2016). "Midnight Sun". www.newstatesman.com. Retrieved 20 September 2016.
  43. ↑ "The Strange Story of the World". Granta Magazine. 28 November 2019. Retrieved 22 January 2020.
  44. ↑ Obioma, Chigozie (8 June 2015). "The Audacity of Prose". The Millions.
  45. ↑ Obioma, Chigozie (January–February 2016). "Teeth Marks: The Translator's Dilemma | Poets and Writers". www.pw.org. Retrieved 20 September 2016.
  46. ↑ Rocco, Fiametta (14 April 2015), "'The Fishermen,' by Chigozie Obioma" (review), The New York Times.
  47. ↑ "The Leading Global Thinkers of 2015". Foreign Policy. Retrieved 5 June 2016.
  48. ↑ "International Literature Award honors 6 books". Deutsche Welle . Archived from the original on 5 June 2020.
  49. ↑ "Atwood and Rushdie on Booker Prize shortlist". BBC News. 3 September 2019.
  50. ↑ Metrock, Bradley (13 August 2019). "Digital Book World 2019 Awards Finalists Announced". Digital Book World. Retrieved 22 January 2020.
  51. ↑ "De kan vinna Kulturhusets litteraturpris". 29 August 2019. Archived from the original on 2 March 2021.
  52. ↑ "La sélection du prix du livre étranger JDD/France Inter 2020". Livres Hebdo (in French). Retrieved 22 January 2020.
  53. ↑ "FT/OppenheimerFunds Emerging Voices Award Finalists". Emerging Voices 2015. 5 October 2015.
  54. ↑ "NAACP Image Awards - Inside the Show". www.naacpimageawards.net. Archived from the original on 28 August 2016. Retrieved 10 April 2016.
  55. ↑ "Los Angeles Times - Festival of Books". Festival of Books. Archived from the original on 25 May 2017. Retrieved 10 April 2016.
  56. ↑ "The Nebraska Book Awards". Lincoln City Libraries. Retrieved 6 November 2020.
  57. ↑ "THE FISHERMEN by Chigozie Obioma Read by Chukwudi Iwuji | Audiobook Review". AudioFile Magazine. Retrieved 5 June 2016.
  58. ↑ "Man Booker Prize announces 2015 shortlist". themanbookerprize.com. Archived from the original on 29 September 2015. Retrieved 15 September 2015.
  59. ↑ Source: Bellanaija.com
  60. ↑ "Announcing the Short List for the 2015 Center for Fiction First Novel Prize". The Center for Fiction. Archived from the original on 20 August 2015.
  61. ↑ "First Book Award". Edinburgh International Book Festival. 2015. Archived from the original on 13 January 2016. Retrieved 31 July 2015.
  62. ↑ "Guardian first book award shortlist 2015", The Guardian, 13 November 2015.
  63. ↑ "2016 Shortlist | The Bookseller". www.thebookseller.com. Retrieved 5 June 2016.
  64. ↑ "Best Debut Goodreads Author 2015 — Goodreads Choice Awards". Goodreads. Retrieved 5 June 2016.
  65. ↑ "Longlist announced for 2016 International Dylan Thomas Prize". www.swansea.ac.uk. Archived from the original on 3 April 2016. Retrieved 5 June 2016.

Archived 4 March 2021 at the Wayback Machine

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.