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Biometrics refers to the automated recognition of individuals based on their biological and behavioral characteristics, not to be confused with statistical biometrics; which is used to analyse data in the biological sciences. Biometrics for the purposes of identification may involve DNA matching, facial recognition, fingerprints, retina and iris scanning, voice analysis, handwriting, gait, and even body odor.[1]
There are multiple countries applying biometrics for multiple reasons, from voting to ePassports.
However, this list is only partial. Multiple other countries in Africa and Asia, including China (Mainland China), collect fingerprints and other biometrics from foreign visitors.
Australia
Visitors intending to visit Australia and returning Australian residents with an ePassport may have to submit to biometric authentication as part of the Smartgate system, linking individuals to their visas and passports. Biometric data are collected from some visa applicants by Immigration particularly in cases of Refugee or Humanitarian Visas.[2]
Australia introduced guidance on biometrics and privacy in 2006, which was developed by the Biometrics Institute. The Biometrics Institute [3] is a self-funded membership organisation that now operates at a global level providing thought leadership, information and an impartial platform for trusted and balanced discussions on biometrics.
Austria
Austria stores biometric photographs of all holders of ID cards and passports, which are Austrian citizens, but does not store collected fingerprints in such cases. It also stores photographs of driver licenses and health insurance cards issued to foreign EU citizens. For foreign citizens subject to visa or residency regimes, photographs and fingerprints are stored. The storage of photographs of its own citizens is in violation of EU regulation 2019/1157, which states, that after 90 days after issuing an ID card, all biometric information should be discarded.
Since the beginning of the 20th century, Brazilian citizens have had user ID cards. The decision by the Brazilian government to adopt fingerprint-based biometrics was spearheaded by Dr. Felix Pacheco at Rio de Janeiro, at that time capital of the Federative Republic. Dr. Pacheco was a friend of Dr. Juan Vucetich, who invented one of the most complete ten-print classification systems in existence. The Vucetich system was adopted not only in Brazil, but also by most of the other South American countries. The oldest and most traditional ID Institute in Brazil (Instituto de Identificação Félix Pacheco) was integrated at DETRAN[4] (Brazilian equivalent to DMV) into the civil and criminal AFIS system in 1999.
Each state in Brazil is allowed to print its own ID card, but the layout and data are the same for all of them. The ID cards printed in Rio de Janeiro are fully digitized using a 2D bar code with information which can be matched against its owner off-line. The 2D bar code encodes a color photo, a signature, two fingerprints, and other citizen data. This technology was developed in 2000 in order to enhance the safety of the Brazilian ID cards.[citation needed]
By the end of 2005, the Brazilian government started the development of its new passport. The new documents started to be released by the beginning of 2007, in Brasília. The new passport included several security features, like laser perforation, UV hidden symbols, security layer over variable data etc. Brazilian citizens will have their signature, photo, and ten rolled-fingerprints collected during passport requests. All of the data is planned to be stored in ICAOE-passport standard. This allows for contactless electronic reading of the passport content and Citizens ID verification since fingerprint templates and token facial images will be available for automatic recognition.[citation needed]
Canada
Canada has begun research into the use of biometric technology in the area of border security[5] and immigration (Center for Security Sciences[6]), Public Security Technical Program,[7] Biometrics Community of Practice). At least one program, the NEXUS program operated jointly by the Canada Border Services Agency and U.S. Customs and Border Protection, is already operational. It is a functioning example of biometric technology, specifically "iris recognition biometric technology"[8] used for border control and security for air travellers. Canada is also the home for the world's biggest biometric access control company called Bioscrypt Inc.
China
China started using biometric collection since November 2018 for most foreign citizens as part of the visa application process. A pilot scheme was tested in Shenzhen International Airport prior to the country-wide implementation. The data collected are all the 10 fingers from the hand and a voiceprint. These measures are most likely intended to clamp down on visa loopholes and improve foreign surveillance.[9][10][11]
Croatia
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France
France introduced biometric border control system known as Parafe on 3 August 2007 at some of its Schengen borders. The system allows those enrolled to utilise automated "airlock" barriers to cross the border. French passports issued after June 2009 are pre-enrolled, while European Union, European Economic Area, Swiss passport holders and family member of European Union citizens can enroll at Charles de Gaulle airport (Terminals 1 and 2E) and Paris Orly airports. The barriers are currently in use at Orly, Charles de Gaulle, Marseille airports and on Eurostar services between London and Paris[12]
Gambia, The
The Gambian Biometric Identification System (GAMBIS) allowed for the issuance of The Gambia's first biometric identity documents in July 2009. An individual's data, including their biometric information (thumbprints) is captured in the database. A National Identification Number (NIN), unique to each applicant applying for a card, is issued to the applicant. Biometric documents issued for The Gambia include national identity cards, residential permits, non-Gambian ID cards and driver licenses.
Germany
The biometrics market in Germany experienced enormous growth between the years 2005 and 2009. "The market size will increase from approximately 120 million € (2004) to 377 million €" (2009). "The federal government will be a major contributor to this development".[13] In particular, the biometric procedures of fingerprint and facial recognition can profit from the government project.[13] In May 2005 the German Upper House of Parliament approved the implementation of the ePass, a passport issued to all German citizens which contain biometric technology. The ePass has been in circulation since November 2005, and contains a chip that holds a digital photograph and one fingerprint from each hand, usually of the index fingers, though others may be used if these fingers are missing or have extremely distorted prints. "A third biometric identifier– iris scans– could be added at a later stage".[14] An increase in the prevalence of biometric technology in Germany is an effort to not only keep citizens safe within German borders but also to comply with the current US deadline for visa-waiver countries to introduce biometric passports.[14] In addition to producing biometric passports for German citizens, the German government has put in place new requirements for visitors to apply for visas within the country. "Only applicants for long-term visas, which allow more than three months' residence, will be affected by the planned biometric registration program. The new work visas will also include fingerprinting, iris scanning, and digital photos".[15]
Germany is also one of the first countries to implement biometric technology at the Olympic Games to protect German athletes. "The Olympic Games is always a diplomatically tense affair and previous events have been rocked by terrorist attacks—most notably when Germany last held the Games in Munich in 1972 and 11 Israeli athletes were killed".[16]
Biometric technology was first used at the Olympic Summer Games in Athens, Greece in 2004. "On registering with the scheme, accredited visitors will receive an ID card containing their fingerprint biometrics data that will enable them to access the 'German House'. Accredited visitors will include athletes, coaching staff, team management and members of the media".[16]
The Government of India funds a number of social welfare schemes focused towards the poor and most vulnerable sections of society. Aadhaar and its platform offers an opportunity to streamline their welfare delivery mechanisms and improve transparency and good governance. In the recent Supreme Court of India verdict Aadhaar has to be mandatorily linked to Permanent Account Number (Tax Identification Number of India)
Service agencies
The UIDAI issues Aadhaar number to residents only after de-duplicating their demographic and biometric attributes against its entire database. Aadhaar authentication enables elimination of duplicates under various schemes and is expected to generate substantial savings to the government exchequer. It also provides the government with accurate data on beneficiaries, enables direct benefit programs, and allows the government departments/service providers to coordinate and optimize various schemes. Aadhaar will enable implementing agencies to verify beneficiaries and ensure targeted delivery of benefits. All these activities will lead to:
Curbing leakages through targeted delivery: Welfare programs where beneficiaries are required to be confirmed before the service delivery, stand to benefit from UIDAI's authentication services. This will result in curbing leakages and ensuring that services are delivered to the intended beneficiaries only. Examples include subsidized food and kerosene delivery to Public Distribution System (PDS) beneficiaries, worksite attendance of Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS) beneficiaries, etc.
Improving efficiency and efficacy: With the Aadhaar platform providing accurate and transparent information about the service delivery mechanism, government can improve disbursement systems and utilize scarce development funds more effectively and efficiently including better human resource utilisation involved in the service delivery network.
For residents
Aadhaar system provides single-source online identity verification across the country for the residents. Once residents enrol, they can use the Aadhaar number to authenticate and establish their identity multiple times using electronic means. It eliminates the hassle of repeatedly providing supporting identity documents each time a resident wishes to access services such as opening a bank account, obtaining driving license, etc. By providing a portable proof of identity that can be verified through Aadhaar authentication on-line anytime, anywhere, the Aadhaar system enables mobility to millions of people who migrate from one part of the country to another.
Prior to its establishment as a statutory authority, UIDAI was functioning as an attached office of the then Planning Commission (now NITI Aayog) vied its Gazette Notification No.-A-43011/02/2009-Admn.I dated 28 January 2009. Later, on 12 September 2015, the Government revised the Allocation of Business Rules to attach the UIDAI to the Department of Electronics & Information Technology (DeitY) of the then Ministry of Communications and Information Technology.
UIDAI was created with the objective to issue Unique Identification numbers (UID), named as "Aadhaar", to all residents of India that is (a) robust enough to eliminate duplicate and fake identities, and (b) can be verified and authenticated in an easy, cost-effective way. The first UID number was issued on 29 September 2010 to a resident of Nandurbar, Maharashtra. The authority has so far issued more than 131 crore (>1.31 billion) Aadhaar numbers to the residents of India.
Under the Aadhaar Act 2016, UIDAI is responsible for Aadhaar enrollment and authentication, including operation and management of all stages of Aadhaar life cycle, developing the policy, procedure and system for issuing Aadhaar numbers to individuals and perform authentication and also required to ensure the security of identity information and authentication records of individuals.
Biometrics are being used extensively in Iraq to catalogue as many Iraqis as possible providing Iraqis with a verifiable identification card, immune to forgery. During account creation, the collected biometrics information is logged into a central database which then allows a user profile to be created. Even if an Iraqi has lost their ID card, their identification can be found and verified by using their unique biometric information. Additional information can also be added to each account record, such as individual personal history.[citation needed]
This section needs to be updated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. Last update: 18 May 2018(June 2018)
In 2009, the Knesset (Israeli Parliament) passed the Biometric Database Law, sanctioning the issue of biometric ID cards and passports to all Israeli citizens and the establishment of a mandatory database for storing their bodily information (fingerprints and face templates). In 2013, Israel launched a two-year preliminary pilot study to evaluate and assess the project's feasibility and necessity, in which participation was voluntary. In March 2017, after several postponements resulting from political controversies and technical challenges, Israel's Minister of the Interior ratified the project.[18][19][20]
Opponents of the proposed law, including prominent Israeli scientists and security experts, warned that the existence of such a database could damage both civil liberties and state security, because any leaks could be used by criminals or hostile individuals against Israeli residents.[21][22][23]
Italy
Since 2013, Italy has deployed a number of ePassport gates at major Italian airports allowing EU, EEA and Swiss citizens with a biometric passport to cross the Schengen border in a totally automated way.
Italy has standardized protocols in use by police forces.[24]
Nepal
Nepal has already started issuing national identity cards and e-passports with biometrics.[25][26]
Netherlands
Starting 21 September 2009, all new Dutch passports and ID cards must include the holder's fingerprints. Since 26 August 2006, Dutch passports have included an electronic chip containing the personal details of the holder and a digitised passport photograph.[27] The chip holds following data: your name (first name(s) and surname); the document number; your nationality, date of birth and sex; the expiry date; the country of issue; and your personal ID number (Dutch tax and social security (SoFi) number).[28]
Recent requirements for passport photos
Since 28 August 2006, under EU regulation '2252/2004' all EU member states have been obliged to include a digital image of the holder's passport photo.[29][30]
New Zealand
SmartGate was launched by the New Zealand government at Auckland International Airport on Thursday 3 December 2009.[31] The program is available at Auckland, Wellington and Christchurch international airports for arriving travellers, and also for travellers departing from Auckland (with plans to extend the program for departures from Wellington and Christchurch by mid-2011).[32]
The kiosk and gate system will allow all New Zealand and Australian electronic passport holders over 18 to clear passport control without needing to have their identity checked by a Customs officer. The system uses "advanced facial software" which "compares your face with the digital copy of your photo in your ePassport chip".[33]
Deputy comptroller of customs John Secker said SmartGate represented probably the biggest single development in border processing in New Zealand in the past two decades. People will have a choice whether they want to use the system or go through normal passport control.[34]
Norway
The introduction of biometric passports to Norway began in 2005 and supplied by Setec, a Gemplus International company. The chips used in Norway employ security features recommended by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) although security and privacy concerns from civil liberties groups remain.[35]
In 2007 the Norwegian government launched a ‘multi-modal’ biometric enrolment system supplied by Motorola. Motorola's new system enabled multiple public agencies to digitally capture and store fingerprints, 2D facial images and signatures for passports and visas.[36]
Steria and IDEX ASA are two of the leading biometrics software and product manufacturers in Norway.
South Korea
All Korean nationals are required to submit their 10 rotational fingerprints to National Police criminal database[37] regardless of previous criminal record, and their photo and right thumb rotational fingerprint to the Ministry of the Interior and Safety.[38] This process is held when a Korean applies for a mandatory national ID card, Resident Registration Card, at 17. A right thumb rotational fingerprint is printed on the back of the Resident Registration Card, allowing private companies to utilize the fingerprint. The fingerprints saved to the criminal database cannot be opt-out nor deleted even after one's emigration or death. Koreans must submit their fingerprints every time trying to enter Korea unless they use the traditional immigration checkpoints, and the scanned fingerprints are compared with the fingerprints stored in the criminal database. Korean passports do not hold biometrics data, since all citizens' biometrics data are stored in the criminal database.[39]
Non-Korean nationals are required to submit their 2 flat fingerprints and photo. The fingerprints are stored permanently and not deleted even after one's departure from Korea.
Privacy issues regarding biometrics are not-well known in Korea, because the fingerprints are collected when a citizen is a minor, and the police do not inform how the fingerprints will be processed, saved, and used to citizens.
Tanzania
Tanzania began its biometric voter registration (BVR) system in February 2015 and planned to use it first in a constitutional referendum and subsequent general elections.[40]
Ukraine
A bill on biometric passports was approved by the Ukrainian Parliament on February 15, 2012. These passports are to be used for foreign travel only. Internal passports so far don't have biometric information.[41] An updated version of the law was passed by the Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine on November 20, 2012, taking into account proposals made by the president, and was subsequently signed by the president.[42] The new biometric passports are one of the conditions placed on Ukraine by the European Union on the path to easing its visa requirements and eventually moving towards a visa-free regime with the EU. These national ID cards will be valid for 10 years and issued at the age of 14, instead of at the age of 16, as previous Ukrainian passports were. Verkhovna RadaCommissioner for Human Rights, Valeriya Lutkovska, had criticized the law as it “does not comply with the Constitution of Ukraine and European standards in the sphere of personal data protection, and might infringe on human rights and freedom.” The law was also criticized by Oleksandr Hladun from the Institute for Demography and Social Studies of Ukraine. He said the adoption such a law on a unified demographic register threatens “to create a police state” in Ukraine, where any information can be collected about any person and used without the person's knowledge.[43]
According to the new law, each Ukrainian citizen, regardless of his or her age, is obliged to obtain such a passport. The previous version of the Ukrainian passports will remain valid until their official expiration dates.[44]
Ukraine's law on biometric passports came into force on December 6, 2012. The document foresees the introduction of electronic passports containing electronic chips with biometric information for traveling abroad, according to the standards of the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). According to the law, the passports of Ukrainian citizens will be produced in the form of cards with contactless smart chips and issued no later than 30 calendar days from the date of the submission of a relevant application. The electronic passports will include the name of the state, the name of the document, the full name of the holder, the holder's sex, citizenship, date of birth, and a unique number in the register, the number of the document, the document's date of expiration, the date of issue of the document, the name of the agency that issued the document, the place of birth, a photo and the signature of the holder. Information about the parents or the guardian of the holder may be included to the document upon a relevant written request. At the president's request, a new provision has been included in the law that says that people who refuse to enter their personal information in an electronic chip due to their religious beliefs have the right to refuse to use this document or the insertion of such information into the chip.[45]
The United Kingdom utilises biometrics in its ePassport gates. To be eligible to use the eGates, one must be a British citizen, a national of an EEA country, Australia, Canada, Japan, New Zealand, Norway, Singapore, South Korea, Switzerland or the USA, or a member of the registered traveller scheme, as well as being at least 18, or 12 if accompanied by an adult.[47] Passport officers remain in place at all eGates gates in case a passport cannot be read or a traveller requires further screening.
Fingerprint scanners have been used in some schools to facilitate the subtraction of funds from an account financed by parents for the payment of school dinners. By using such a system, nutritional reports can be produced for parents to survey a child's intake. This has raised questions from liberty groups, which claim that the system removes freedom of choice from young people. Other concerns arise from the possibility of data leaking from the providers of school meals to interest groups that provide health services, such as the NHS and insurance groups, which may have a detrimental effect on the ability of individuals to enjoy equality of access to services.[citation needed]
United States
Starting in 2005, US passports with facial (image-based) biometric data were scheduled to be produced. Privacy activists in many countries have criticized the technology's use for the potential harm to civil liberties, privacy, and the risk of identity theft. Currently, there is some apprehension in the United States (and the European Union) that the information can be "skimmed" and identify people's citizenship remotely for criminal intent, such as kidnapping. [citation needed]
The US Department of Defense (DoD) Common Access Card, is an ID card issued to all US Service personnel and contractors on US Military sites. This card contains biometric data and digitized photographs. It also has laser-etched photographs and holograms to add security and reduce the risk of falsification. There have been over 10 million of these cards issued.[citation needed]
According to Jim Wayman, director of the National Biometric Test Center at San Jose State University, Walt Disney World is the nation's largest single commercial application of biometrics.[48] However, the US-VISIT program will very soon surpass Walt Disney World for biometrics deployment.
The United States records all fingerprints and a picture of foreign airline passengers visiting the U.S. (exempting Canadians), keeping it in databases for seventy-five years. It is suggested that such information should be shared among the U.S. and other countries that have similar systems. Privacy advocates are worried about data leakage and misuse.[49]
NEXUS is a joint Canada-United States program operated by the Canada Border Services Agency and U.S. Customs and Border Protection. It is designed to expedite travel cross the US-Canada border and makes use of biometric authentication technology, specifically "iris recognition biometric technology".[8] It permits pre-approved members of the program to use self-serve kiosks at airports, reserved lanes at land crossings, or by phoning border officials when entering by water.
As of February 2018, Utah requires applicants for non-REAL ID driver licenses to provide fingerprints,[50] and California[51] and Colorado[52][53] fingerprint all driver license applicants.
An identity document is any document that may be used to prove a person's identity. If issued in a small, standard credit card size form, it is usually called an identity card, or passport card. Some countries issue formal identity documents, as national identification cards that may be compulsory or non-compulsory, while others may require identity verification using regional identification or informal documents. When the identity document incorporates a person's photograph, it may be called photo ID.
Iris recognition is an automated method of biometric identification that uses mathematical pattern-recognition techniques on video images of one or both of the irises of an individual's eyes, whose complex patterns are unique, stable, and can be seen from some distance. The discriminating powers of all biometric technologies depend on the amount of entropy they are able to encode and use in matching. Iris recognition is exceptional in this regard, enabling the avoidance of "collisions" even in cross-comparisons across massive populations. Its major limitation is that image acquisition from distances greater than a meter or two, or without cooperation, can be very difficult. However, the technology is in development and iris recognition can be accomplished from even up to 10 meters away or in a live camera feed.
An electronic identification ("eID") is a digital solution for proof of identity of citizens or organizations. They can be used to view to access benefits or services provided by government authorities, banks or other companies, for mobile payments, etc. Apart from online authentication and login, many electronic identity services also give users the option to sign electronic documents with a digital signature.
A biometric passport is a traditional passport that has an embedded electronic microprocessor chip, which contains biometric information that can be used to authenticate the identity of the passport holder. It uses contactless smart card technology, including a microprocessor chip and antenna embedded in the front or back cover, or centre page, of the passport. The passport's critical information is printed on the data page of the passport, repeated on the machine readable lines and stored in the chip. Public key infrastructure (PKI) is used to authenticate the data stored electronically in the passport chip, supposedly making it expensive and difficult to forge when all security mechanisms are fully and correctly implemented.
A national identification number, national identity number, or national insurance number or JMBG/EMBG is used by the governments of many countries as a means of tracking their citizens, permanent residents, and temporary residents for the purposes of work, taxation, government benefits, health care, and other governmentally-related functions.
The Colombian passport is a travel document which is issued to citizens of Colombia for the purpose of international travel. Since September 2015, a biometric passport has been issued, but the previously issued machine-readable passport can be used until its expiration date.
Swedish passports are issued to nationals of Sweden for the purpose of international travel. Besides serving as proof of Swedish citizenship, they facilitate the process of securing assistance from Swedish consular officials abroad.
The Swedish national identity card is a non-compulsory biometric identity document issued in Sweden. It is one of two official identity documents issued by the Swedish Police, the other being the Swedish passport. It is only issued to Swedish citizens, and indicates the citizenship.
The Estonian identity card is a mandatory identity document for citizens of Estonia. In addition to regular identification of a person, an ID-card can also be used for establishing one's identity in electronic environment and for giving one's digital signature. Within Europe as well as French overseas territories, Georgia and Tunisia the Estonian ID-card can be used by the citizens of Estonia as a travel document.
The Albanian passport is a travel document issued by the Ministry of Interior to Albanian citizens to enable them to travel abroad. They are also used as proof of identity within the country, along with the Albanian ID card.
Every Polish citizen 18 years of age or older residing permanently in Poland is required to have an identity card issued by the local office of civic affairs. Children as well as Polish citizens living permanently abroad are entitled, but not required, to have one. Identity cards are valid for a period of 10 years.
The Albanian identity card (Letërnjoftim) is a national identity card issued by Albanian authorities to Albanian citizens. It is proof of identity, citizenship and residence. The current version is in ID1 format and biometric. The ID card is compulsory for citizens over 16 years of age, costs 1,500 lekë and is valid for 10 years.
Aadhaar is a 12-digit unique identity number that can be obtained voluntarily by all residents of India, based on their biometrics and demographic data. The data is collected by the Unique Identification Authority of India (UIDAI), a statutory authority established in January 2009 by the Government of India, under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology, following the provisions of the Aadhaar Act, 2016.
The Computerised National Identity Card (CNIC) is an identity card issued by Pakistan's National Database and Registration Authority (NADRA). The card is available to any citizen of Pakistan who is 18 years of age or older. The CNIC is a computerised version of the National Identity Card (NIC).
The German Identity Card is issued to German citizens by local registration offices in Germany and diplomatic missions abroad, while it is produced at the Bundesdruckerei in Berlin.
The Ghana Card is the national Identity card that is issued by the Ghanaian authorities to Ghanaian citizens – both resident and non-resident, legal and permanent residents of foreign nationals. It is proof of identity, citizenship and residence of the holder. The current version is in ID1 format and biometric. It is issued by the National Identification Authority of Ghana and Regarded as a property of the country as such. In July 2023, through the initiative of the Vice President, Dr. Mahamudu Bawumia, new card numbers were issued to newborn babies as part of pilot program to incorporate newborn babies unto the database.
The Lebanese identity card is a compulsory Identity document issued to citizens of the Republic of Lebanon by the police on behalf of the Lebanese Ministry of Interior or in Lebanese embassies/consulates (abroad) free of charge. It is proof of identity, citizenship and residence of the Lebanese citizens.
The Ukrainian identity card or Passport of the Citizen of Ukraine is an identity document issued to citizens of Ukraine. Every Ukrainian citizen aged 14 or above that permanently resides in Ukraine must possess an identity card issued by the State Migration Service. Ukrainian identity cards can be used as a travel document to enter Ukraine, Georgia, Moldova, Russia and Turkey.
The National Identity Card or NID card is a compulsory identity document issued to every Bangladeshi citizen upon turning 18 years of age by Bangladesh Election Commission (EC). The NID is also a biometric, microchip embedded smart identity card. The NID is required by Bangladeshi citizens for multiple essential public services & private services in Bangladesh. Initially, paper-based laminated NID cards were issued in 2006. Then, the paper-based laminated NID cards were replaced by the Smart NID cards in 2016. This was done to ensure security for the cardholder as well as prevent counterfeiting and fraudulence. Bangladesh government provides the Smart NID card with zero cost for all above 14 years Bangladeshi citizens.
The identification document of Uruguay, formerly known as "Cédula de identidad". is issued by the Ministry of the Interior and the
↑ Marciano, Avi (2018-05-03). "The Discursive Construction of Biometric Surveillance in the Israeli Press". Journalism Studies. 20 (7): 972–990. doi:10.1080/1461670X.2018.1468723. S2CID149930324.
↑ Specialist and University Faculty: Enrico Manfredi d'Angrogna Luserna v. Staufen, Rome University Tor Vergata– Siena University.Metodiche diagnostiche in antropologia forense. ELMA, 2005. ISBN978-88-902428-8-5
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