Cronobacter sakazakii

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Cronobacter sakazakii
Enterobacter sakazakii.tif
Colonies on trypticase soy broth agar
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Domain: Bacteria
Phylum: Pseudomonadota
Class: Gammaproteobacteria
Order: Enterobacterales
Family: Enterobacteriaceae
Genus: Cronobacter
Species:
C. sakazakii
Binomial name
Cronobacter sakazakii
(Farmer et al. 1980) [1]

Cronobacter sakazakii, which before 2007 was named Enterobacter sakazakii, [2] [3] is an opportunistic Gram-negative, rod-shaped, pathogenic bacterium that can live in very dry places, a phenomenon known as xerotolerance. C. sakazakii utilizes a number of genes to survive desiccation [4] and this xerotolerance may be strain specific. [5] The majority of C. sakazakii cases are adults but low-birth-weight preterm neonatal and older infants are at the highest risk. The pathogen is a rare cause of invasive infection in infants, with historically high case fatality rates (40–80%). [6] [7] [8] [9]

Contents

In infants it can cause bacteraemia, meningitis and necrotizing enterocolitis. Most neonatal C. sakazakii infections cases have been associated with the use of powdered infant formula [7] [9] with some strains able to survive in a desiccated state for more than two years. [10] However, not all cases have been linked to contaminated infant formula. In November 2011, several shipments of Kotex tampons were recalled due to a Cronobacter (E. sakazakii) contamination. In one study, the pathogen was found in 12% of field vegetables and 13% of hydroponic vegetables. [11] [12]

All Cronobacter species, except C. condimenti , have been linked retrospectively to clinical cases of infection in either adults or infants. However multilocus sequence typing [13] has shown that the majority of neonatal meningitis cases in the past 30 years, across six countries, have been associated with only one genetic lineage of the species Cronobacter sakazakii called 'Sequence Type 4' or 'ST4', [14] and therefore this clone appears to be of greatest concern with infant infections.

The bacterium is ubiquitous, being isolated from a range of environments and foods; the majority of Cronobacter cases occur in the adult population. However it is the association with intrinsically or extrinsically contaminated powdered formula which has attracted the main attention. According to multilocus sequence analysis (MLSA) the genus originated ~40 MYA, and the most clinically significant species, C. sakazakii, was distinguishable ~15-23 MYA. [15]

Taxonomy

E. sakazakii was defined as a species in 1980 by JJ Farmer III et al. [1] DNA–DNA hybridization showed that E. sakazakii was 53–54% related to species in two different genera, Enterobacter and Citrobacter . However, diverse biogroups within E. sakazakii were described and Farmer et al suggested these may represent different species and required further research for clarification. [1]

The taxonomic relationship between E. sakazakii strains has been studied using full-length 16S rRNA gene sequencing, DNA–DNA hybridization, multilocus sequence typing (MLST), f-AFLP, automated ribotyping. This resulted in the classification of E. sakazakii as a new genus, Cronobacter within the Enterobacteriaceae, initially comprising four named species in 2007. The taxonomy was expanded to five named species in 2008, and more recently (2011) to seven named species. [2] [3] [16]

The initial four named species in 2007 were Cronobacter sakazakii (comprising two subspecies), C. turicensis , C. muytjensii and C. dublinensis (comprising three subspecies) plus an unnamed species referred to as Cronobacter genomospecies I. [16] The taxonomy was revised in 2008 to include a fifth named species C. malonaticus , which in 2007 had been regarded as a subspecies of C. sakazakii. [2] In 2012, Cronobacter genomospecies I was formally renamed Cronobacter universalis , and a seventh species was described called Cronobacter condimenti . [3]

Etymology

The first documented isolation of what would become known as Cronobacter sakazakii was from a can of dried milk in 1950, although these organisms have likely existed for millions of years. In 1980, John J. Farmer III, proposed the name Enterobacter sakazakii for what had been known as "yellow-pigmented E. cloacae", in honor of Japanese bacteriologist Riichi Sakazaki. Over the next decades, E. sakazakii was implicated in scores of cases of meningitis and sepsis among infants, frequently in association with powdered infant formula. In 2007, the genus Cronobacter was created to accommodate the biogroups of E. sakazakii, with C. sakazakii as the type species. The genus was named for Cronos, the Titan of Greek myth, who devoured his children as they were born. [17]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Enterobacteriaceae</span> Family of bacteria

Enterobacteriaceae is a large family of Gram-negative bacteria. It includes over 30 genera and more than 100 species. Its classification above the level of family is still a subject of debate, but one classification places it in the order Enterobacterales of the class Gammaproteobacteria in the phylum Pseudomonadota. In 2016, the description and members of this family were emended based on comparative genomic analyses by Adeolu et al.

Multilocus sequence typing (MLST) is a technique in molecular biology for the typing of multiple loci, using DNA sequences of internal fragments of multiple housekeeping genes to characterize isolates of microbial species.

<i>Escherichia</i> Genus of bacteria

Escherichia is a genus of Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacteria from the family Enterobacteriaceae. In those species which are inhabitants of the gastrointestinal tracts of warm-blooded animals, Escherichia species provide a portion of the microbially derived vitamin K for their host. A number of the species of Escherichia are pathogenic. The genus is named after Theodor Escherich, the discoverer of Escherichia coli. Escherichia are facultative aerobes, with both aerobic and anaerobic growth, and an optimum temperature of 37 °C. Escherichia are usually motile by flagella, produce gas from fermentable carbohydrates, and do not decarboxylate lysine or hydrolyze arginine. Species include E. albertii, E. fergusonii, E. hermannii, E. ruysiae, E. marmotae and most notably, the model organism and clinically relevant E. coli. Formerly, Shimwellia blattae and Pseudescherichia vulneris were also classified in this genus.

<i>Enterobacter</i> Genus of bacteria

Enterobacter is a genus of common Gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped, non-spore-forming bacteria of the family Enterobacteriaceae. Cultures are found in soil, water, sewage, feces and gut environments. It is the type genus of the order Enterobacterales. Several strains of these bacteria are pathogenic and cause opportunistic infections in immunocompromised hosts and in those who are on mechanical ventilation. The urinary and respiratory tracts are the most common sites of infection. The genus Enterobacter is a member of the coliform group of bacteria. It does not belong to the fecal coliforms group of bacteria, unlike Escherichia coli, because it is incapable of growth at 44.5 °C in the presence of bile salts. Some of them show quorum sensing properties.

Streptococcus bovis is a group of strains of Gram-positive bacteria, originally described as a species, that in humans is associated with urinary tract infections, endocarditis, sepsis, and colorectal cancer. S. bovis is commonly found in the alimentary tract of cattle, sheep, and other ruminants, and may cause ruminal acidosis. It is also associated with spontaneous bacterial peritonitis, a frequent complication occurring in patients affected by cirrhosis. Equivalence with Streptococcus equinus has been contested.

<i>Enterobacter cloacae</i> Species of bacterium

Enterobacter cloacae is a clinically significant Gram-negative, facultatively-anaerobic, rod-shaped bacterium.

<i>Pantoea</i> Genus of bacteria

Pantoea is a genus of Gram-negative bacteria of the family Erwiniaceae, recently separated from the genus Enterobacter. This genus includes at least 20 species. Pantoea bacteria are yellow pigmented, ferment lactose, are motile, and form mucoid colonies. Some species show quorum sensing ability that could drive different gene expression, hence controlling certain physiological activities. Levan polysaccharide produced by Pantoea agglomerans ZMR7 was reported to decrease the viability of rhabdomyosarcoma (RD) and breast cancer (MDA) cells compared with untreated cancer cells. In addition, it has high antiparasitic activity against the promastigote of Leishmania tropica.

Klebsiella aerogenes, previously known as Enterobacter aerogenes, is a Gram-negative, oxidase-negative, catalase-positive, citrate-positive, indole-negative, rod-shaped bacterium. Capable of motility via peritrichous flagella, it is approximately one to three microns in length.

Pluralibacter gergoviae is a Gram-negative, motile, facultatively-anaerobic, rod-shaped bacterium. P. gergoviae is of special interest to the cosmetics industry, as it displays resistance to parabens, a common antimicrobial agent added to cosmetic products.

<i>Cronobacter</i> Genus of bacteria

Cronobacter is a genus of Gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, oxidase-negative, catalase-positive, rod-shaped bacteria of the family Enterobacteriaceae. Several Cronobacter species are desiccation resistant and persistent in dry products such as powdered infant formula. They are generally motile, reduce nitrate, use citrate, hydrolyze esculin and arginine, and are positive for L-ornithine decarboxylation. Acid is produced from D-glucose, D-sucrose, D-raffinose, D-melibiose, D-cellobiose, D-mannitol, D-mannose, L-rhamnose, L-arabinose, D-trehalose, galacturonate and D-maltose. Cronobacter spp. are also generally positive for acetoin production and negative for the methyl red test, indicating 2,3-butanediol rather than mixed acid fermentation. The type species of the genus Cronobacter is Cronobacter sakazakii comb. nov.

Cronobacter turicensis is a bacterium. It is usually food-borne and pathogenic. It is named after Turicum, the Latin name of Zurich, as the type strain originates from there. Its type strain is strain 3032. This strain was first isolated from a fatal case of neonatal meningitis. C. Turicensis strains are indole negative but malonate, dulcitol and methyl-α-D-glucopyranoside positive.

Cronobacter dublinensis is a bacterium. Its name pertains to Dublin, the origin of the type strain. The type strain is originally from a milk powder manufacturing facility. C. dublinensis sp. nov. is dulcitol negative and methyl-α-D-glucopyranoside positive and generally positive for indole production.

Cronobacter muytjensii is a bacterium. It is named after Harry Muytjens. Its type strain is ATCC 51329T. It is indole, dulcitol, and malonate positive but palatinose and methyl-α-D-glucopyranoside negative.

Cronobacter malonaticus, formerly considered a subspecies of Cronobacter sakazakii, is a bacterium. Its type strain is CDC 1058-77T.

Enterobacter cowanii is a Gram-negative, motile, facultatively-anaerobic, rod-shaped bacterium of the genus Enterobacter. The species is typically associated with natural environments and is found in soil, water, and sewage. E. cowanii is associated with plant pathogens that exhibit symptoms of severe defoliation and plant death. This species, originally referred to as NIH Group 42, was first proposed in 2000 as a potential member of the family Enterobacteriaceae. The name of this species honors S. T. Cowan, an English bacteriologist, for his significant contributions to the field of bacterial taxonomy.

Citrobacter murliniae is a species of bacteria.

Escherichia hermannii is a Gram-negative, rod-shaped species of bacterium. Strains of this species were originally isolated from human wounds, sputum, and stool. The species is named for American microbiologists George J. Hermann and Lloyd G. Herman.

<i>Phytobacter</i> Genus of bacteria

Phytobacter is a genus of Gram-negative bacteria emerging from the grouping of isolates previously assigned to various genera of the family Enterobacteriaceae. This genus was first established on the basis of nitrogen fixing isolates from wild rice in China, but also includes a number of isolates obtained during a 2013 multi-state sepsis outbreak in Brazil and, retrospectively, several clinical strains isolated in the 1970s in the United States that are still available in culture collections, which originally were grouped into Brenner's Biotype XII of the Erwinia herbicola-Enterobacter agglomerans-Complex (EEC). Standard biochemical evaluation panels are lacking Phytobacter spp. from their database, thus often leading to misidentifications with other Enterobacterales species, especially Pantoea agglomerans. Clinical isolates of the species have been identified as an important source of extended-spectrum β-lactamase and carbapenem-resistance genes, which are usually mediated by genetic mobile elements. Strong protection of co-infecting sensitive bacteria has also been reported. Bacteria belonging to this genus are not pigmented, chemoorganotrophic and able to fix nitrogen. They are lactose fermenting, cytochrome-oxidase negative and catalase positive. Glucose is fermented with the production of gas. Colonies growing on MacConkey agar (MAC) are circular, convex and smooth with non-entire margins and a usually elevated center. Three species are currently validly included in the genus Phytobacter, which is still included within the Kosakonia clade in the lately reviewed family of Enterobacteriaceae. The incorporation of a fourth species, Phytobacter massiliensis, has recently been proposed via the unification of the genera Metakosakonia and Phytobacter.

Pluralibacter is a genus of Gram negative bacteria from the family of Enterobacteriaceae. The genus consists of two species, P. gergoviae and P. pyrinus. Both species were originally classified in the genus Enterobacter but were reclassified into the novel genus Pluralibacter in 2013.

Pluralibacter pyrinus is a Gram-negative, motile, facultatively-anaerobic, rod-shaped bacterium. P. pyrinus is the causitive agent of brown leaf spot disease of pear trees.

References

  1. 1 2 3 Farmer JJ III, Asbury MA, Hickman FW, Brenner DJ (1980). "Enterobacter sakazakii: a new species of "Enterobacteriaceae" isolated from clinical specimens". Int J Syst Bacteriol. 30 (3). the Enterobacteriaceae Study Group (USA): 569–84. doi: 10.1099/00207713-30-3-569 .
  2. 1 2 3 Iversen C, Mullane N, McCardell B, Tall BD, Lehner A, Fanning S, Stephan R, Joosten H (2008). "Cronobacter gen. nov., a new genus to accommodate the biogroups of Enterobacter sakazakii, and proposal of Cronobacter sakazakii gen. nov. comb. nov., C. malonaticus sp. nov., C. turicensis sp. nov., C. muytjensii sp. nov., C. dublinensis sp. nov., Cronobacter genomospecies 1, and of three subspecies, C. dublinensis sp. nov. subsp. dublinensis subsp. nov., C. dublinensis sp. nov. subsp. lausannensis subsp. nov., and C. dublinensis sp. nov. subsp. lactaridi subsp. nov". International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology. 58 (6): 1442–7. doi: 10.1099/ijs.0.65577-0 . PMID   18523192. S2CID   6609941.
  3. 1 2 3 Joseph S, Cetinkaya E, Drahovska H, Levican A, Figueras MJ, Forsythe SJ (2012). "Cronobacter condimenti sp. nov., isolated from spiced meat and Cronobacter universalis sp. nov., a novel species designation for Cronobacter sp. genomospecies 1, recovered from a leg infection, water, and food ingredients". Int J Syst Evol Microbiol. 62 (Pt 6): 1277–1283. doi: 10.1099/ijs.0.032292-0 . PMID   22661070.
  4. ↑ Srikumar S, Cao Y, Yan Q, Van Hoorde K, Nguyen S, Cooney S, Gopinath GR, Tall BD, Sivasankaran SK, Lehner A, Stephan R, Fanning S (January 2019). "RNA Sequencing-Based Transcriptional Overview of Xerotolerance in Cronobacter sakazakii SP291". Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 85 (3). Bibcode:2019ApEnM..85E1993S. doi:10.1128/AEM.01993-18. PMC   6344630 . PMID   30446557.
  5. ↑ Cao Y, Dever K, Van Hoorde K, Sivasankaran SK, Nguyen SV, Macori G, Naithani A, Gopinath GR, Tall B, Lehner A, Stephan R, Srikumar S, Fanning S (November 2021). "Alterations in the Transcriptional Landscape Allow Differential Desiccation Tolerance in Clinical Cronobacter sakazakii". Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 87 (24): e0083021. Bibcode:2021ApEnM..87E.830C. doi:10.1128/AEM.00830-21. PMC   8612285 . PMID   34644165.
  6. ↑ Hunter, Catherine J.; Petrosyan, Mikael; Ford, Henri R.; Prasadarao, Nemani V. (2017-04-28). "Enterobacter sakazakii: An Emerging Pathogen in Infants and Neonates". Surgical Infections. 9 (5): 533–539. doi:10.1089/sur.2008.006. ISSN   1096-2964. PMC   2579942 . PMID   18687047.
  7. 1 2 Centers for Disease Control Prevention (CDC) (April 2002). "Enterobacter sakazakii infections associated with the use of powdered infant formula--Tennessee, 2001". MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. 51 (14): 297–300. PMID   12002167. Free full text
  8. ↑ Lai KK (March 2001). "Enterobacter sakazakii infections among neonates, infants, children, and adults. Case reports and a review of the literature". Medicine. 80 (2): 113–22. doi: 10.1097/00005792-200103000-00004 . PMID   11307587. S2CID   7515008.
  9. 1 2 Bowen AB, Braden CR (August 2006). "Invasive Enterobacter sakazakii disease in infants". Emerging Infectious Diseases. 12 (8): 1185–9. doi:10.3201/eid1208.051509. PMC   3291213 . PMID   16965695.
  10. ↑ Caubilla-Barron J, Forsythe S (2007). "Dry stress and survival time of Enterobacter sakazakii and other Enterobacteriaceae in dehydrated infant formula". Journal of Food Protection. 13: 467–472.
  11. ↑ Ueda, Shigeko (2017-01-01). "Occurrence of Cronobacter spp. in Dried Foods, Fresh Vegetables and Soil". Biocontrol Science. 22 (1): 55–59. doi: 10.4265/bio.22.55 . ISSN   1884-0205. PMID   28367871.
  12. ↑ "FDA Recall of Kotex Tampons". Seeger Weiss LLP. 2011-11-16. Archived from the original on 2014-09-05. Retrieved 2012-02-29.
  13. ↑ Baldwin A, Loughlin M, Caubilla-Baron J, Kucerova E, Manning G, Dowson C, Forsythe S (2009). "Multilocus sequence typing of Cronobacter sakazakii and Cronobacter malonaticus reveals stable clonal structures with clinical significance which do not correlate with biotypes". BMC Microbiology. 9: 223. doi: 10.1186/1471-2180-9-223 . PMC   2770063 . PMID   19852808.
  14. ↑ Joseph S, Forsythe SJ (2011). "Association of Cronobacter sakazakii ST4 with neonatal infections". Emerging Infectious Diseases. 17 (9): 1713–5. doi:10.3201/eid1709.110260. PMC   3322087 . PMID   21888801.
  15. ↑ Joseph S, Sonbol H, Hariri S, Desai P, McClelland M, Forsythe SJ (September 2012). "Diversity of the Cronobacter genus as revealed by multilocus sequence typing". Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 50 (9): 3031–9. doi:10.1128/JCM.00905-12. PMC   3421776 . PMID   22785185.
  16. 1 2 Iversen C, Lehner A, Mullane N, Bidlas E, Cleenwerck I, Marugg J, Fanning S, Stephan R, Joosten H (2007). "The taxonomy of Enterobacter sakazakii: proposal of a new genus Cronobacter gen. nov. and descriptions of Cronobacter sakazakii comb. nov. Cronobacter sakazakii subsp. sakazakii, comb. nov., Cronobacter sakazakii subsp. malonaticus subsp. nov., Cronobacter turicensis sp. nov., Cronobacter muytjensii sp. nov., Cronobacter dublinensis sp. nov. and Cronobacter genomospecies 1". BMC Evolutionary Biology. 7 (1): 64. Bibcode:2007BMCEE...7...64I. doi: 10.1186/1471-2148-7-64 . PMC   1868726 . PMID   17439656.
  17. ↑ Henry, Ronnie (November 2018). "Etymologia: Cronobacter sakazakii". Emerg Infect Dis. 24 (11): 2124. doi: 10.3201/eid2411.et2411 . PMC   6199989 .
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