Endothelial dysfunction

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Comparison of healthy vs. dysfunctional vascular endothelium Viruses-13-00029-g001.webp
Comparison of healthy vs. dysfunctional vascular endothelium

In vascular diseases, endothelial dysfunction is a systemic pathological state of the endothelium. In addition to acting as a semipermeable membrane, the endothelium is responsible for maintaining vascular tone and regulating oxidative stress by releasing mediators, such as nitric oxide, prostacyclin and endothelin, and by controlling local angiotensin-II activity. [1] [2]

Contents

Dysfunctional endothelium is characterized by vasoconstriction, increased vascular permeability, thrombosis, and inflammation. This pathological state is often associated with elevated levels of biomarkers such as prothrombin time, D-dimer, fibrin degradation products, C-reactive protein (CRP), ferritin, Interleukin 6 (IL-6), and plasma creatinine. The result of this endothelial dysregulation is a cascade of adverse effects, including vasoconstriction, vascular leakage, thrombosis, hyperinflammation, and a disrupted antiviral immune response. These changes contribute to the progression of vascular diseases. [3]

In a healthy state, the endothelium exhibits vasodilation, tightly controlled vascular permeability, and anti-thrombotic and anti-inflammatory properties. This balance ensures the smooth functioning of the vascular system. [3]

Research

Atherosclerosis

Stages of endothelial dysfunction in atherosclerosis of arteries Atherosclerosis timeline - endothelial dysfunction.svg
Stages of endothelial dysfunction in atherosclerosis of arteries

Endothelial dysfunction may be involved in the development of atherosclerosis [4] [5] [6] and may predate vascular pathology. [4] [7] Endothelial dysfunction may also lead to increased adherence of monocytes and macrophages, as well as promoting infiltration of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) in the vessel wall. [8] Dyslipidemia and hypertension are well known to contribute to endothelial dysfunction, [9] [10] and lowering blood pressure and LDL has been shown to improve endothelial function, particularly when lowered with ACE inhibitors, calcium channel blockers, and statins. [11]

Nitric oxide

Nitric oxide (NO) suppresses platelet aggregation, inflammation, oxidative stress, vascular smooth muscle cell migration and proliferation, and leukocyte adhesion. [5] A feature of endothelial dysfunction is the inability of arteries and arterioles to dilate fully in response to an appropriate stimulus, such as exogenous nitroglycerine, [4] that stimulates release of vasodilators from the endothelium like NO. Endothelial dysfunction is commonly associated with decreased NO bioavailability, which is due to impaired NO production by the endothelium or inactivation of NO by reactive oxygen species.[ citation needed ]

Testing and diagnosis

In the coronary circulation, angiography of coronary artery responses to vasoactive agents may be used to test for endothelial function, and venous occlusion plethysmography and ultrasonography are used to assess endothelial function of peripheral vessels in humans. [4]

A non-invasive method to measure endothelial dysfunction is % Flow-Mediated Dilation (FMD) as measured by Brachial Artery Ultrasound Imaging (BAUI). [12] Current measurements of endothelial function via FMD vary due to technical and physiological factors. Furthermore, a negative correlation between percent flow mediated dilation and baseline artery size is recognised as a fundamental scaling problem, leading to biased estimates of endothelial function. [13]

A non-invasive, FDA-approved device for measuring endothelial function that works by measuring Reactive Hyperemia Index (RHI) is Itamar Medical's EndoPAT. [14] [15] It has shown an 80% sensitivity and 86% specificity to diagnose coronary artery disease when compared against the gold standard, acetylcholine angiogram. [16] This results suggests that this peripheral test reflects the physiology of the coronary endothelium.

Since NO maintains low tone and high compliance of the small arteries at rest, [17] a reduction of age-dependent small artery compliance is a marker for endothelial dysfunction that is associated with both functional and structural changes in the microcirculation. [18] Small artery compliance or stiffness can be assessed simply and at rest and can be distinguished from large artery stiffness by use of pulsewave analysis. [19]

Endothelial dysfunction and stents

Stent implantation has been correlated with impaired endothelial function in several studies. [20] Sirolimus eluting stents were previously used because they showed low rates of in-stent restenosis, but further investigation showed that they often impair endothelial function in humans and worsen conditions. [20] One drug used to inhibit restenosis is iopromide-paclitaxel. [21]

Risk reduction

Treatment of hypertension and hypercholesterolemia may improve endothelial function in people taking statins (HMGCoA-reductase inhibitor), and renin angiotensin system inhibitors, such as ACE inhibitors and angiotensin II receptor antagonists. [22] [23] Calcium channel blockers and selective beta 1 antagonists may also improve endothelial dysfunction. [11] Life style modifications such as smoking cessation have also been shown to improve endothelial function and lower the risk of major cardiovascular events. [24]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Angioplasty</span> Procedure to widen narrow arteries or veins

Angioplasty, also known as balloon angioplasty and percutaneous transluminal angioplasty (PTA), is a minimally invasive endovascular procedure used to widen narrowed or obstructed arteries or veins, typically to treat arterial atherosclerosis.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Atherosclerosis</span> Form of arteriosclerosis

Atherosclerosis is a pattern of the disease arteriosclerosis, characterized by development of abnormalities called lesions in walls of arteries. These lesions may lead to narrowing of the arterial walls due to buildup of atheromatous plaques. At onset there are usually no symptoms, but if they develop, symptoms generally begin around middle age. In severe cases, it can result in coronary artery disease, stroke, peripheral artery disease, or kidney disorders, depending on which body part(s) the affected arteries are located in the body.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Vasodilation</span> Widening of blood vessels

Vasodilation, also known as vasorelaxation, is the widening of blood vessels. It results from relaxation of smooth muscle cells within the vessel walls, in particular in the large veins, large arteries, and smaller arterioles. Blood vessel walls are composed of endothelial tissue and a basal membrane lining the lumen of the vessel, concentric smooth muscle layers on top of endothelial tissue, and an adventitia over the smooth muscle layers. Relaxation of the smooth muscle layer allows the blood vessel to dilate, as it is held in a semi-constricted state by sympathetic nervous system activity. Vasodilation is the opposite of vasoconstriction, which is the narrowing of blood vessels.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Endothelium</span> Layer of cells that lining inner surface of blood vessels

The endothelium is a single layer of squamous endothelial cells that line the interior surface of blood vessels and lymphatic vessels. The endothelium forms an interface between circulating blood or lymph in the lumen and the rest of the vessel wall. Endothelial cells form the barrier between vessels and tissue and control the flow of substances and fluid into and out of a tissue.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Restenosis</span> Recurrence of stenosis, a narrowing of a blood vessel

Restenosis is the recurrence of stenosis, a narrowing of a blood vessel, leading to restricted blood flow. Restenosis usually pertains to an artery or other large blood vessel that has become narrowed, received treatment to clear the blockage, and subsequently become re-narrowed. This is usually restenosis of an artery, or other blood vessel, or possibly a vessel within an organ.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Coronary thrombosis</span> Medical condition

Coronary thrombosis is defined as the formation of a blood clot inside a blood vessel of the heart. This blood clot may then restrict blood flow within the heart, leading to heart tissue damage, or a myocardial infarction, also known as a heart attack.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Haemodynamic response</span>

In haemodynamics, the body must respond to physical activities, external temperature, and other factors by homeostatically adjusting its blood flow to deliver nutrients such as oxygen and glucose to stressed tissues and allow them to function. Haemodynamic response (HR) allows the rapid delivery of blood to active neuronal tissues. The brain consumes large amounts of energy but does not have a reservoir of stored energy substrates. Since higher processes in the brain occur almost constantly, cerebral blood flow is essential for the maintenance of neurons, astrocytes, and other cells of the brain. This coupling between neuronal activity and blood flow is also referred to as neurovascular coupling.

Vasospasm refers to a condition in which an arterial spasm leads to vasoconstriction. This can lead to tissue ischemia and tissue death (necrosis). Cerebral vasospasm may arise in the context of subarachnoid hemorrhage. Symptomatic vasospasm or delayed cerebral ischemia is a major contributor to post-operative stroke and death especially after aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage. Vasospasm typically appears 4 to 10 days after subarachnoid hemorrhage.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Variant angina</span> Medical condition

Variant angina, also known as Prinzmetal angina,vasospastic angina, angina inversa, coronary vessel spasm, or coronary artery vasospasm, is a syndrome typically consisting of angina. Variant angina differs from stable angina in that it commonly occurs in individuals who are at rest or even asleep, whereas stable angina is generally triggered by exertion or intense exercise. Variant angina is caused by vasospasm, a narrowing of the coronary arteries due to contraction of the heart's smooth muscle tissue in the vessel walls. In comparison, stable angina is caused by the permanent occlusion of these vessels by atherosclerosis, which is the buildup of fatty plaque and hardening of the arteries.

In blood vessels Endothelium-Derived Hyperpolarizing Factor or EDHF is proposed to be a substance and/or electrical signal that is generated or synthesized in and released from the endothelium; its action is to hyperpolarize vascular smooth muscle cells, causing these cells to relax, thus allowing the blood vessel to expand in diameter.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Drug-eluting stent</span> Medical implant

A drug-eluting stent (DES) is a tube made of a mesh-like material used to treat narrowed arteries in medical procedures both mechanically and pharmacologically. DES is inserted into a narrowed artery using a balloon. Once the balloon inside the stent is inflated, the stent expands, pushing against the artery wall, keeping the artery open, thereby improving blood flow. The mesh design allows cells to grow through and around it, securing it in place.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Endothelial NOS</span> Protein and coding gene in humans

Endothelial NOS (eNOS), also known as nitric oxide synthase 3 (NOS3) or constitutive NOS (cNOS), is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the NOS3 gene located in the 7q35-7q36 region of chromosome 7. This enzyme is one of three isoforms that synthesize nitric oxide (NO), a small gaseous and lipophilic molecule that participates in several biological processes. The other isoforms include neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS), which is constitutively expressed in specific neurons of the brain and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), whose expression is typically induced in inflammatory diseases. eNOS is primarily responsible for the generation of NO in the vascular endothelium, a monolayer of flat cells lining the interior surface of blood vessels, at the interface between circulating blood in the lumen and the remainder of the vessel wall. NO produced by eNOS in the vascular endothelium plays crucial roles in regulating vascular tone, cellular proliferation, leukocyte adhesion, and platelet aggregation. Therefore, a functional eNOS is essential for a healthy cardiovascular system.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pathophysiology of hypertension</span>

Pathophysiology is a study which explains the function of the body as it relates to diseases and conditions. The pathophysiology of hypertension is an area which attempts to explain mechanistically the causes of hypertension, which is a chronic disease characterized by elevation of blood pressure. Hypertension can be classified by cause as either essential or secondary. About 90–95% of hypertension is essential hypertension. Some authorities define essential hypertension as that which has no known explanation, while others define its cause as being due to overconsumption of sodium and underconsumption of potassium. Secondary hypertension indicates that the hypertension is a result of a specific underlying condition with a well-known mechanism, such as chronic kidney disease, narrowing of the aorta or kidney arteries, or endocrine disorders such as excess aldosterone, cortisol, or catecholamines. Persistent hypertension is a major risk factor for hypertensive heart disease, coronary artery disease, stroke, aortic aneurysm, peripheral artery disease, and chronic kidney disease.

Endothelial activation is a proinflammatory and procoagulant state of the endothelial cells lining the lumen of blood vessels. It is most characterized by an increase in interactions with white blood cells (leukocytes), and it is associated with the early states of atherosclerosis and sepsis, among others. It is also implicated in the formation of deep vein thrombosis. As a result of activation, enthothelium releases Weibel–Palade bodies.

Neointimal hyperplasia refers to proliferation and migration of vascular smooth muscle cells primarily in the tunica intima, resulting in the thickening of arterial walls and decreased arterial lumen space. Neointimal hyperplasia is the major cause of restenosis after percutaneous coronary interventions such as stenting or angioplasty. The term neointima is used because the cells in the hyperplastic regions of the vascular wall have histological characteristics of both intima and normal artery cells.

A dual therapy stent is a coronary artery stent that combines the technology of an antibody-coated stent and a drug-eluting stent. Currently, second-generation drug-eluting stents require long-term use of dual-antiplatelet therapy, which increases the risk of major bleeding occurrences in patients. Compared to drug-eluting stents, dual therapy stents have improved vessel regeneration and cell proliferation capabilities. As a result, dual therapy stents were developed to reduce the long-term need for dual-antiplatelet therapy.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">20-Hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid</span> Chemical compound

20-Hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid, also known as 20-HETE or 20-hydroxy-5Z,8Z,11Z,14Z-eicosatetraenoic acid, is an eicosanoid metabolite of arachidonic acid that has a wide range of effects on the vascular system including the regulation of vascular tone, blood flow to specific organs, sodium and fluid transport in the kidney, and vascular pathway remodeling. These vascular and kidney effects of 20-HETE have been shown to be responsible for regulating blood pressure and blood flow to specific organs in rodents; genetic and preclinical studies suggest that 20-HETE may similarly regulate blood pressure and contribute to the development of stroke and heart attacks. Additionally the loss of its production appears to be one cause of the human neurological disease, Hereditary spastic paraplegia. Preclinical studies also suggest that the overproduction of 20-HETE may contribute to the progression of certain human cancers, particularly those of the breast.

Flow-mediated dilation (FMD) refers to dilation (widening) of an artery when blood flow increases in that artery. The primary cause of FMD is release of nitric oxide by endothelial cells.

In medicine, vein graft failure (VGF) is a condition in which vein grafts, which are used as alternative conduits in bypass surgeries, get occluded.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hypertension and the brain</span>

Hypertension is a condition characterized by an elevated blood pressure in which the long term consequences include cardiovascular disease, kidney disease, adrenal gland tumors, vision impairment, memory loss, metabolic syndrome, stroke and dementia. It affects nearly 1 in 2 Americans and remains as a contributing cause of death in the United States. There are many genetic and environmental factors involved with the development of hypertension including genetics, diet, and stress.

References

  1. ↑ Sitia, S.; Tomasoni, L.; Atzeni, F.; Ambrosio, G.; Cordiano, C.; Catapano, A.; Tramontana, S.; Perticone, F.; Naccarato, P. (2010). "From endothelial dysfunction to atherosclerosis". Autoimmunity Reviews. 9 (12): 830–834. doi:10.1016/j.autrev.2010.07.016. PMID   20678595.
  2. ↑ Flammer AJ, Anderson T, Celermajer DS, Creager MA, Deanfield J, Ganz P, Hamburg NM, Lüscher TF, Shechter M, Taddei S, Vita JA, Lerman A (Aug 2012). "The assessment of endothelial function: from research into clinical practice". Circulation. 126 (6): 753–67. doi:10.1161/circulationaha.112.093245. PMC   3427943 . PMID   22869857.
  3. 1 2 Bernard, Isabelle; Limonta, Daniel; Mahal, Lara K.; Hobman, Tom C. (January 2021). "Endothelium Infection and Dysregulation by SARS-CoV-2: Evidence and Caveats in COVID-19". Viruses. 13 (1): 29. doi: 10.3390/v13010029 . ISSN   1999-4915. PMC   7823949 . PMID   33375371.
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  11. 1 2 Ghiadoni, Lorenzo; Taddei, Stefano; Virdis, Agostino (2012). "Hypertension and endothelial dysfunction: therapeutic approach". Current Vascular Pharmacology. 10 (1): 42–60. doi:10.2174/157016112798829823. ISSN   1875-6212. PMID   22112351.
  12. ↑ Peretz, Alon; Daniel F Leotta; Jeffrey H Sullivan; Carol A Trenga; Fiona N Sands; Mary R Aulet (2007). "Flow mediated dilation of the brachial artery: an investigation of methods requiring further standardization". BMC Cardiovascular Disorders. 7 (11): 11. doi: 10.1186/1471-2261-7-11 . PMC   1847451 . PMID   17376239.
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  21. ↑ Unverdorben, Martin; Vallbracht, Christian; Cremers, Bodo; Heuer, Hubertus; Hengstenberg, Christian; Maikowski, Christian; Werner, Gerald S.; Antoni, Diethmar; Kleber, Franz X. (2009-06-16). "Paclitaxel-coated balloon catheter versus paclitaxel-coated stent for the treatment of coronary in-stent restenosis". Circulation. 119 (23): 2986–2994. doi: 10.1161/circulationaha.108.839282 . ISSN   0009-7322. PMID   19487593.
  22. ↑ Ruilope LM, Redón J, Schmieder R (2007). "Cardiovascular risk reduction by reversing endothelial dysfunction: ARBs, ACE inhibitors, or both? Expectations from the ONTARGET Trial Programme". Vascular Health and Risk Management. 3 (1): 1–9. PMC   1994043 . PMID   17583170.
  23. ↑ Briasoulis A, Tousoulis D, Androulakis ES, Papageorgiou N, Latsios G, Stefanadis C (Apr 2012). "Endothelial dysfunction and atherosclerosis: focus on novel therapeutic approaches". Recent Pat Cardiovasc Drug Discov. 7 (1): 21–32. doi:10.2174/157489012799362386. PMID   22280336.
  24. ↑ Messner, Barbara; Bernhard, David (2014). "Smoking and cardiovascular disease: mechanisms of endothelial dysfunction and early atherogenesis". Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, and Vascular Biology. 34 (3): 509–515. doi: 10.1161/ATVBAHA.113.300156 . ISSN   1524-4636. PMID   24554606.
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