Estates General of 1588

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The Chateau of Blois, where the Estates would meet Charles-Caius Renoux, Chateau de Elois.jpg
The Château of Blois, where the Estates would meet

The Estates General of 1588 was a national meeting of the three orders of France; the clergy, nobility and common people. Called as a part of the concessions Henri III made to the Catholic ligue in the aftermath of the Day of the Barricades, the Estates were formerly convoked on 28 May. Initially intended to begin in September, the meeting would be delayed until October. While he waited for the Estates to begin Henri dismissed all his ministers, replacing them with largely unknown men. The election of delegates witnessed an unusually bitter campaign, as both Henri and the leaders of the ligue, represented by Henry I, Duke of Guise competed to get deputies loyal to them selected, with the ligue seeing considerably more success than the king. On 16 October the Estates formerly opened, and quickly the ligueur deputies imposed their will on the king, forcing him to reaffirm concessions he had made in July. Matters soon turned to finance, with the Third Estate taking the lead in combining an advocacy for war against Protestantism with a refusal to countenance any raising of taxes. Indeed, they proposed a wide-ranging series of radical reforms that would have reduced Henri to the status of a constitutional monarch. In late October, the duke of Savoie invaded the French territory of the Marquisate of Saluzzo. After some initial success, the Estates refused to approve for a war against the duke.

Contents

Humiliated and frustrated by the continued defiance of the Estates, and seeing the hand of the duke of Guise behind their every act of resistance, Henri resolved to cut the head of the ligue by assassinating the duke of Guise. On 23 December the duke was lured into a side chamber and cut to pieces, his brother was executed the following day. While this radical coup had a chilling effect on the Estates, aided by the arrest of a series of leading members of the Estates, a degree of defiance among the Third Estate continued, with proposals for a tribunal of leading financiers in early January. On 16 January Henri brought the Estates to a close. They had been a failure, and by now his assassination of the duke of Guise had brought France into civil war, with the majority of French cities including Paris declaring themselves in insurrection against him. In a difficult position he was forced into alliance with his Protestant cousin Navarre in an effort to take back his kingdom.

Crisis of royal authority

Day of the Barricades

The Duke of Guise during the Day of the Barricades, by Paul Lehugeur, 19th century Le duc de Guise lors de la journee des barricades by Paul Lehugeur 19th century.jpg
The Duke of Guise during the Day of the Barricades, by Paul Lehugeur, 19th century

By May 1588, Henri was ready for a showdown with the Catholic ligue and introduced troops into the capital, hoping to suppress their partisans in the city. His plan backfired, and militant elements of the population began rioting. The riot was quickly harnessed by the aristocratic members of the ligue, with the duke of Brissac leading a force of students and monks against the soldiers, driving them back across the city. Henri, increasingly alarmed decided he had little choice but to flee the capital, leaving it in the hands of the duke of Guise and the ligue, who quickly instituted a revolution in the cities administration. [1] [2] [3] [4]

Concessions

After the humiliation of the Day of the Barricades, Henri was forced to make several capitulations to the ligue. While in exile from the capital in Rouen he agreed to sign their proposed Edict of Union and pardon all the participants in the coup in the capital. [5] By this act he would exclude the Protestant Navarre from the succession in favour of Navarre's Catholic uncle Cardinal Bourbon, and conduct a war against heresy, the details of which were to be worked out an Estates General. [6] [7] He further removed his hated favourite the duke of Épernon from the majority of his offices, and established the ligues leader, the duke of Guise as the lieutenant-general of the kingdom. [8] With these climb downs made Paris was once again under his authority, and he departed Rouen on 21 July. [5]

Ministerial revolution

By letters patent published on 29 May and 8 July, Henri issued the calls for the convoking of the Estates General. [9] The Parisian ligue wanted Henri to return to the capital, however Henri made his excuses that he was needed at Blois the location of the upcoming Estates General. He arrived at Blois for the upcoming meeting on 1 September, accompanied by his mother and his various ministers. [10] On 8 September he sacked almost all his ministers, and replaced them with largely unknown men. François II de Montholon  [ fr ] was appointed garde des sceaux, giving him the authority of Chancellor, and Ruzé and Revol were established as new secretaries of state. [8]

The new gardes des sceaux Francois II de Montholon [fr] Francois II de montholon 1505383.jpg
The new gardes des sceaux François II de Montholon  [ fr ]

Explaining his reasoning for this palace revolution to his mother, Henri opined that Chancellor Cheverny was corrupt. As for his former ministers, 'Bellièvre (the surintendant des finances) was a crypto-Protestant, Villeroy was vain, Brûlart was a nonentity, and Pinart would sell his own parents for money'. He offered a different explanation to the Papal Legate Morosini, explaining how he suspected that the soon to be convened Estates would have demanded their sacking, and thus he was beating them to the punch. [10] [11] Morosini found the explanation plausible, envisioning that the men would be blamed for the high taxation, but also thought that their links to the king's mother Catherine de Medici had a part to play. [12] The Venetian ambassador suspected the men had been leaking state secrets to Guise. [13]

The new men were little known administrators, Montholon possibly never having seen the king before. [14] The reshuffle came with a change in administration style, Henri now governing far more directly than he had, with his ministers not to open his letters privately as they had in previous years. [15]

Ambitions

The ligue had hoped that the upcoming Estates General would be used to further the plans for a war against heresy. [6] Henri however had different ambitions for the gathering, and looked to use it to isolate the noble ligueurs from their urban base, thus regaining the initiative he had lost so decisively during the Day of the Barricades. [8] He had further need of the Estates due to the ruinous state of royal finances, the crown's debts had increased from 101 million at the time of the Estates General of 1576, to 133 million. Between a quarter and third of royal expenditure was devoted to servicing debts. [11] In his letter to the provinces, in which he made the call for the Estates, Henri promised that he would do all in his power to carry out their wishes. [16]

Unable to attend the Estates, due to being at war with the crown and a Protestant, Navarre desired nevertheless to moderate the meeting away from any radical course against him. In August he warned that he was willing to defend his rights, and that the delegates for the Estates should work towards a productive peace, so that a general council could resolve doctrinal issues between Protestants and Catholics. He implied that if such a council were to occur, he would be open to abjuring. When the Estates convened, he was able to rely on his Catholic cousins Montpensier, Conti and Soissons to represent his position against the Catholic fundamentalists and they sought to temper the Estates attitude towards him. [17]

Delegates

A bitter election of deputies to the Estates followed, with Henri and the ligue competing to get their candidates elected. [8] The duke of Guise wrote to the Spanish ambassador Mendoza, explaining that 'I am not forgetting anything on my side, having sent to all provinces and bailliages [trustworthy agents] to secure a contrary outcome'. He further added that 'the largest number of deputies will be for us'. [16]

With delegates chosen, they drew up their cahiers, lists of grievances they wished to be addressed, before heading to Blois. [5] Though it had initially been intended for the Estates to begin their deliberations on 15 September, too few delegates had arrived by that time for things to be started, so the opening was pushed back a month. [15]

Elections in the provinces

Champagne

In the Guisard heartland of Champagne, the duke of Guise's brother, Cardinal Guise helped engineer suitably ligueur deputies, personally choosing Esclavolles as a deputy of the Second Estate for Troyes among others. Departing from the city for the Estates, he brought with him to Blois all the delegates from Troyes that he had chosen. [18] Cardinal Guise was not however the First Estates delegate for Troyes, instead having secured selection through the baillage of Vermandois. [7] Overall the ligue and its leaders had more success in securing ideologically loyal candidates among the First and Third Estates, while the Second reflected more the clientage networks of the provincial noblesse seconde. [19] Much of the local Champenois nobility was either neutral concerning the ligue or allied with the lieutenant general Joachim de Dinteville in support of the crown's cause. [20]

Normandie

The ligue saw further success in Normandie. The ligueur heir to the French throne, Cardinal Bourbon, received election for the First Estate in his power base of Rouen. the count of Brissac who had played a large role in organising the Day of the Barricades was elected for the Caux, and the Roncherolles who had been involved in the formation of the ligue in 1584 got a member of their family elected for Gisors. Even in the more royalist confines of Caen a ligueur captain was elected. Only in Alençon in Normandie did the ligue run into serious roadblocks, as the royalist bailli Jacques de Renty engaged in subterfuge to best his ligueur opponent Gabriel de Vieuxpoint. [21] Men of the Guise network were elected in many places, as with the Second Estate of Rouen, which returned a client of theirs named Nicolas Vipart. The elections to the Third Estate in Normandie demonstrate more complexity in the factions that would be present at Blois. The royalist Third Estate deputy from Caen baulked at the demands for increased taxation, meanwhile the ligueur deputy from Rouen refused to countenance the idea of the king's financiers being prosecuted, and struck a line on taxation that almost saw him defenstrated by his fellow Third Estate deputies. [22]

Lyon

In Lyon, Claude de Rubys drew up the cahiers for the estates delegates. The complaints he presented were largely nationalist in character, with the crimes of 'Italian financiers' holding central place. The cahiers argued these financiers accumulated offices and estates through the harsh taxation they imposed upon the people, and that to rectify this, the king should confiscate these holdings and suppress any offices created for the financiers. [23] The cahiers called for trials of those who loaned to the crown at 100% interest, or made high profits off tax farming. [24]

Paris

The cahiers of Paris for the Estates were far more elaborate in their ligueur character, due to the ligue domination of the city in the wake of May 1588. Demands were made for the suppression of hundreds of venal offices, arguing these offices were arbitrary and created to pay off debts to financiers. The cahiers called for the establishment of a special chamber to investigate financial crimes. The primary problem of the kingdom according to the grievance list, was of course the toleration of 'heresy', which the cahiers alleged was enabled by protective favourites at court who shielded 'heretics' from their 'rightful persecution' and subjugated the population of France with oppressive measures. [24] The king's favourites, Épernon and his brother Bernard de Nogaret were denounced as heretical allies of Navarre. [25] There were also proposals for the Estates to have power over the king's ministers, and for the Estates General to become a body that sat in permanent session. A 'council of state' was to be established, composed of twelve men, to instruct the king during absences of the Estates. [26] [27]

Guise network

The duke of Guise's brother, Mayenne took charge of ensuring Bourgogne and Poitou delivered suitably ligueur candidates. Guise's cousin Aumale arrived to guide the provincial delegates who had met in Amiens. [28] The duke himself, travelled widely, ensuring his presence was felt at various elections. [27]

Cahiers

The Third Estate in Chaumont took the radical step in their cahiers of suggesting that their loyalty to the king would be contingent on his upholding of the fundamental laws of the kingdom, and if he violated these principles, his subjects would no longer be compelled to obey him. Provocative requests that challenged the king's authority did not solely originate from the Third Estate. The nobles of the baillage of Montdidier argued that the provincial estates should be expanded in purview, to afford the local nobility a greater say in the affairs of their provinces. The nobility of the Boulonnais meanwhile urged the king to revoke the last 20 years of taxation and to put the kingdoms chief financiers on trial. [29] Despite the radicalism of the cahiers of 1588, none were openly hostile to the king himself, even those of Paris thanked him attempting to relieve the oppression of the people. [30]

Royal successes

While the ligue succeeded in dominating many provincial elections, Henri was also able to put his thumb on the scales. For the Second Estate election of Chartres, he overruled the governor of the city, insisting that his favourite, the seigner de Maintenon be chosen. When the governor protested, he threatened to kill the alternative proposed candidate if he showed up at Blois. [28] [31]

Henri would also secure the participation of royalist nobles from Poitiers, such as the count of Sanzay. [32]

Preparation for the Estates

The ligue was largely successful in their electoral efforts, and when the Estates finally met in October, the ligue dominated the Third Estate. Henri had however made more inroads into the nobility and clergy than had been anticipated. [27] The king was in good spirits about his prospects for the Estates, confiding his optimism in his long time confident the duke of Nevers. [25]

Overall however, his situation was still poor, which was a problem as his plan to divide and conquer the estates, as he had with the Estates General of 1576 would be frustrated by their general unity of purpose. [33] The ligueur deputies for their part, well remembered the Estates General of 1576, and were determined not to be outmanoeuvred again. [14]

Election of the Présidents

Cardinal Bourbon and Cardinal Guise were chosen as Présidents for the First Estate. They led a delegation of 134 deputies of whom bishops and archbishops constituted twenty five. Of these twenty five senior churchmen, seventeen were affiliated with the ligue while around nine were royalist. [34] This leadership by Cardinals of the Estate was not atypical, indeed a Cardinal was expected to act as speaker for the Estates as a whole. [35]

The ligueur duke of Brissac was elected Président for the Second Estate alongside the baron de Magnac. In total they would lead 180 noble deputies. [36] [6] Brissac had played a key role in organising the rebel forces during the Day of the Barricades, and was an ardent ligueur. [14]

La Chapelle-Marteau was electedPrésident for the Third, at the head of 191 deputies. [8] [6] [36] He had been made prévôt des marchands, the equivalent of mayor of Paris, by the ligueur coup government, known as the Seize, in the days after the Day of the Barricades. [7] In total around 80% of the Third Estate deputies were ligueur in affiliation. [14] Around half of the deputies were drawn from the judiciary, in particular avocats. [37]

Guise's dilemma

Portrait of the duke of Guise Guise.jpg
Portrait of the duke of Guise

The duke of Guise, who had in the wake of the Day of the Barricades been granted one of the two royal armies to command, handed over his control to the ligueur adjacent Nevers in September. He would join all the rest of the ligueur leadership at Blois with the exception of his brother Mayenne who stayed with his army command. [15] Henri opined to his ally Cardinal Joyeuse that the upcoming Estates would reveal to him, whether Guise remained a servant of the crown, or an enemy. [17]

On 9 October five representatives of each Estate attended high mass in front of the High Altar of Notre-Dame-des-Aides. A ceremonial moment before the sessions began, the king joined them, accompanied by the queen, his mother and the princes of the realm. [38] [9]

Estates in session

16 October opening

In his opening address to the Estates on 16 October, Henri opened with praise for his mothers stewardship of the kingdom calling her 'mother of the kingdom'. This praise of his mother was his parting tribute to her, as since the dismissal of his ministers in September, he had ceased to consult her on state affairs. [39] He went on to reinforce his resolute Catholicism, and plans to make war on heresy. Henri further outlined his intentions to undertake an ambitions program of reform of the state. During his speech, Henri took a provocative step, declaring that 'Some great nobles in my kingdom have formed such leagues and associations, but with my customary kindness I am putting the past behind me regarding this matter. However, as I have to uphold royal dignity, I hereby declare that any subject of mine who now or in the future will continue to adhere to such leagues and associations without my consent, will be deemed guilty of high treason'. The duke of Guise, in his capacity as Grand Maître was seated directly below the king during this address, and was reported to turn pale when he heard this part of the speech. Meeting with his brother Cardinal Guise and their ally the Archbishop of Lyon after the session, Cardinal Guise chided him for having 'down things by half', i.e. not deposing Henri in May, while Épinac proposed pressuring the king to remove the passage. They agreed they would compel Henri to delete the passage from the printed version of his speech. Confronted by the Archbishop and Cardinal Guise, Henri capitulated to their demands and removed it. [33] [40] [41] [42] [37]

Montholon followed the king's address with one of his own, in which he reinforced the king's desire to suppress heresy and reduce the amount of venal offices. He had intended to detail plans of ecclesiastical alienations to be made to raise funds, but the rebukes the court had received from the cahiers of the Estates led to this being excised. [37]

18 October - fundamental laws

In the second session of the Estates, the Estates began to push their religious program. The Edict of Union Henri had been compelled to assent to was declared by the delegates to be a 'fundamental law' of the kingdom. [43] Henri capitulated to their demands that it be considered such, in so doing superseding the Salic Law which had previously governed royal succession. He at first attempted to temper what he was being asked to do, trying to insert the phrase 'the authority, fidelity and obedience due to his majesty', but the Estates rejected this, and he was forced to concede. [42] Having made this capitulation Henri was escorted for a Te Deum at the Cathedral of Saint-Sauveur, where he was greeted by cheering crowds. La Chapelle-Marteau thanked him on behalf of Paris for the steps he had taken, causing Henri to respond that he forgave them for the Day of the Barricades. [44]

Guise was delighted by the days affairs, writing to the Spanish ambassador in celebration. [29] While many Catholics celebrated his capitulations, his supporters, such as the Parlementaire De Thou bemoaned the degradations and humiliations he was being forced into. [45] Not all his supporters were so downcast however. The duke of Nevers, who was both a close confident of the king and adjacent politically to the ligue was overjoyed, describing the capitulation as holy. [46]

First Estate priorities

The Estates were generally combative, with the First Estate pushing hard for the resumption of war against Protestants. Elements of the First Estate also campaigned for the return of episcopal elections, a former jealously guarded privilege which had been suppressed by Pope Clement VII in 1531. [47] The 1539 Edict of Villers-Cotterêts was also subject to criticism, the edict having restricted the purview of ecclesiastical courts. [48] The clergy further wanted the ability to use royal gendarmes for ecclesiastical affairs without the permission of a secular court. However these appeals failed to achieve success. [49] The ligueur Prelates among the First Estate proved to have a relatively small role in their Estates campaigns, which were led by members of the lower clergy. On 4 November, the lower clergy drove the Estates as a whole to demand that Henri go further than the Edict of Union, and specifically declare that Navarre was a traitor, and had no rights to inherit the crown. Henri baulked at this, arguing that it was not right for Navarre to be judged without being able to defend himself, and he proposed an embassy be dispatched to remind Navarre of his duties. Opposition was raised to Henri's decision to pardon Conti and Soissons, who had previously campaigned with Navarre in 1587. [37] [50] Adoption of the Tridentine Decrees was also campaigned for by the First Estate, which was disappointed that the Parlement of Paris was currently rejecting them. Henri promised to look into the matter. [44] [17]

Among the prelates it was the royalists who proved more active. [34] The most radical of the royalists Claude d'Angennes, bishop of Le Mans argued that while heresy must be deplored, the heretic himself must be loved so that they might be redeemed. He further supported the Protestant Navarre's succession and refused to affiliate with the ligueur Oath of Union. For his radical position he was censured by the First Estate and Sorbonne. [51]

Third estate priorities

The Third Estate meanwhile, challenged Henri on a range of fronts arguing for an overhaul of the judiciary, reduction in taxation, abolition of venality, limits on the king's fiscal powers and most radically for the Estates to become a regular body. This last demand in particular, which pushed the kingdom in the direction of a constitutional monarchy, was not what the noble ligueurs of the First and Second Estate had in mind, and was embarrassing to them. [52] Henri conceded to some of their fiscal demands, but the Third Estate pushed harder, alarming Henri with their expansive view of what the Estates should be. [8] [6] It was in particular the Parisian component of the Third Estate, coalesced around the Seize that desired the most radical program to result from the assembly. [53]

The Estates campaigned for Henri to institute a commission of inquiry into the 'fiscal crimes of Italian financiers'. [54] In the prior months ligueur pamphlets had made claims about a shadowy group of around 30 Italian financiers, who together controlled all of France's wealth. It was the men of this pamphlet who were at the forefront of the Estates campaign. [55] On 23 November Lazare Coquelay delivered a fiery speech in which he urged the Estates to seek out the riches held by 'courtiers and other vermin' who were to be 'squeezed like sponges'. [56] Henri at first appeared to assent to this demand, causing cheers of 'Vive le Roi!', before adding that he would do it in exchange for the provision of funds to support his household and prosecute the war. [57]

Président Neuilly and La Chapelle-Marteau were tasked with conducting an audit of the royal accounts. Their investigations found a chaotic system filled with nepotism and secrecy. This was fairly typical of the royal way of doing business but it appeared to them to be a sign either of incompetence or fraud. The Third Estate left the audit with the impression Henri had the funds he needed, he was just using them improperly. [56]

For a war against heresy, Henri required tax revenue be provided by the Estates, however the Third Estate was uninterested in conceding ground in this regard and proposed that Henri curb his expenditures to raise the necessary money. [58]

Position of Guise

Having attained much of what he desired from the king during the capitulations that followed the Day of the Barricades. Guise had not been keen to see the Estates General convoked. He was keenly aware that his interests now diverged from those of his base. A fact the king was also aware of, and keen to exploit. [11] Guise greatly desired a war against heresy, and in particular Navarre. To achieve this he was happy to see an increase in taxation to fund the war. The Third Estate however, upon which the burden of taxation would largely fall, wished to see both the war on heresy, and the reduction in taxation. Guise found himself involved in repeated negotiations with the Third Estate in an attempt to reconcile the two positions, something he would ultimately be unsuccessful in at the time of his death. [59] He would be accompanied in these negotiations by the Papal Legate Morosini. [60]

Marquisate of Saluzzo

Engraving of the duke of Savoie, who invaded Saluzzo Dankaerts-Historis-9272.tif
Engraving of the duke of Savoie, who invaded Saluzzo

At the end of October, while the Estates were in session, the duke of Savoie invaded the French Marquisate of Saluzzo, under the pretext of protecting the territory from heresy. This represented the final conquest in Italia from the Italian Wars that France still held. [61] Maintenon, who Henri had forced into the Estates attempted to lead the Second Estate in calling for a campaign against the duke, but he was unsuccessful in bringing the Estates towards a patriotic war. This was despite initial success when he whipped the Second Estate into a patriotic fervour towards a 'glorious' war against the 'national enemy', i.e. España. The First and Third Estate soon got them back into line with their position. [62] [63] The estates took the position that any campaign against Savoie was predicated upon the prosecution of the most important war, that against heresy. [64]

Guise though in theory open to a campaign against Savoie, supported the First and Third Estates position in this, working through the Spanish ambassador, as he feared a war against Savoie would denude the war against Protestantism. He was further aware of the potential risks to his relationship with España in such a move, the duke of Savoie and Felipe II being close relatives. [65]

Henri could not believe the duke of Savoie would have invaded without the consent of the ligue, and saw Guise's efforts behind the invasion. He was incorrect, Guise had rebuffed the duke's offers. [44]

Financial disputes

On 11 November Henri submitted his proposal for royal expenditure to the Estates for their attentions. His proposal was a radical curtailing of royal expenditure. Despite these efforts of appeasement the Third Estate was unimpressed, offering him only 120,000 livres. Of this sum, he was not even to see 100,000 which was to be delivered directly towards the two commanders of the royal army, the duke of Guise's brother the duke of Mayenne and the ligue sympathetic duke of Nevers. [40] The duke of Guise for his part assured the king this sum could be raised within eight days. [66]

At the end of November, Henri made further concessions to the Third Estate. Taxes would be reduced, a chamber of justice created and tax collection would be in the hands of the provinces. The Third Estate, chose instead of thanking him for the concessions to push for more negotiations. On 28 November Guise dined with La Chapelle-Marteau and other leaders to discuss the Third Estates position, pleading with them to afford the king some financial relief. La Chapelle-Marteau and his colleagues were unmoved by the urgings of their aristocratic patron. [56] On 3 December the Third Estate offered Henri an ultimatum, either he reduce taxation to 1576 levels, or they would leave. [67] Henri turned to Guise to convince them to be reasonable, however his continued negotiations were baring little fruit. [57] Henri for his part had by December taken to summoning groups of deputies to him, so that he could attempt to appease their demands. [68]

Guise was by now in daily negotiations with the Third Estate, and was warned by the royalist Beauvais-Nangis that the king was becoming suspicious of his dealings with them. [67] Behind the radical demands of the Third Estate, Henri now saw the hand of the Guise pulling the strings to squeeze him. [69] Guise for his part was now being advised by his supporters to leave Blois for the safety of Orléans, however he was convinced by the Archbishop of Lyon that leaving the Estates would be an admission of his defeat. [70] Henri for his part, received warnings that the duke of Guise planned to abduct him to Paris, where he could be more easily controlled in the ligueur city. [71]

It was becoming increasingly clear that the Estates were deadlocked, Montpensier wrote to Nevers that he had made the decision to retire from the Estates, on 22 December. He was unaware that the king had already made a decision to 'cut the gordian knot'. [72]

Royal coup

Assassination of the duke of Guise

Assassination of Henri I, Duke of Guise, by Henri III, in 1588. Painting by Charles Durupt in the Chateau de Blois, where the attack took place. Legended'Henri III.jpg
Assassination of Henri I, Duke of Guise, by Henri III, in 1588. Painting by Charles Durupt in the Château de Blois, where the attack took place.

Frustrated at the intransigence of the Estates among other grievances, Henri resolved to assassinate the Duke and Cardinal of Guise, hoping that by cutting off the head of the ligue he would tame the estates. On 23 December the duke was lured to the king's chambers and killed, the Cardinal, who had been arrested was killed the following day [73]

Ligueurs arrested

In the wake of the assassinations, Henri undertook a series of arrests of allies to the Guise. His grand prévôt Richelieu burst into the Estates chamber with a company of archers. Informed the assembled delegates that an attempt had been made on the king's life, he then moved to arrest various delegates. La Chapelle-Marteau, Louis Dorléans and Neuilly, all leaders of the Seize were rounded up. [74] The Third Estate deputies were taken up to the bedchamber where the duke had been killed, and shown the pools of blood on the floor. They overheard that gallows were being constructed, however Henri had little interest in killing them, desiring only for them to be fearful enough that they would lose their defiance. [75] The Seize shadow government of Paris was defiant, replacing their arrested members, and vowing to 'employ the last penny in their purse and the last drop of their blood' to avenge the murder of Guise. [58] [76] Cardinal Bourbon, the surviving leader of the First Estate and the heir Henri had been forced to recognise was put under house arrest. [5] Brissac one of the leaders of the Second was likewise arrested. [20]

Lingering defiance

Soon thereafter, Henri dispatched a delegation to the Estates, hoping that now Guise was dead, the Third Estate would be more malleable towards providing him with subsidies. Among the figures dispatched to intimidate the Estates was the duke of Retz and Cardinal Retz. [69]

In early January, the Third Estate orator Étienne Bernard, a lawyer from Dijon, gave a defiant speech in which he critiqued the financial policies of the court, arguing that the people suffered not only due to the destruction brought by German reiters, but also that imposed upon them by financiers. [9] He suggested the large monetary gifts given to the bankers and the methods they used to raise revenues had impoverished the common person. According to Bernard these men controlled legal tribunals through bribery and intimidation, and travelled through the kingdom protected by mercenaries from the common people as they implemented new fiscal devices. [77]

While the Third Estate would not denounce Henri's actions against the Guise as illegal, enough defiance remained for them to argue for the release of their imprisoned colleagues. [78]

End of the Estates

The Estates were indeed quieted from their most radical demands in the wake of the assassinations, and the Estates concluded in January 1589. [73] The royalist bishop of Bourges gave the closing address of the Estates on 16 January, in which he urged that all Frenchman pray for Henri's health and longevity. [51] That same day, the ligueur government of Paris purged the Paris Parlement of royalists. [79]

Aftermath

The assassination of the duke of Guise ultimately overshadowed the Estates, and radically changed the political situation in France. In Paris, Mayenne was declared lieutenant general of the kingdom by the Seize, and cities across France began to defect to the ligue. The Sorbonne pre-empted a declaration of Henri's excommunication by the Pope by declaring that all his subjects were absolved of their loyalty to him. Henri entered open civil war with the ligue. [58] [73] [18]

His position was not however strong enough to fight the ligue on his own, and he turned to his former heir the Protestant Navarre for support. The two kings entered compact in April, and began a fight back against the ligue. [80] [81]

Sources

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Charles, Duke of Mayenne</span> Late 16th-century French nobleman and military leader in the Wars of Religion

Charles de Lorraine, duc de Mayenne was a French noble, governor, military commander and rebel during the latter French Wars of Religion. Born in 1554, the second son of François de Lorraine, duke of Guise and Anne d'Este, Mayenne inherited his fathers' position of Grand Chambellan in 1563 upon his death. He fought at the siege of Poitiers for the crown in 1569, and crusaded against the Ottomans in 1572. He served under the command of the king's brother Anjou during the siege of La Rochelle in the fourth war of religion, during which he was wounded. While the siege progressed, his uncle was killed by a cannonball, and he inherited his position as governor of Bourgogne. That same year, his marquisate of Mayenne was elevated to a duché pairie. He travelled with Anjou when he was elected as king of the Commonwealth and was a member of his court there until early 1574 when he departed on crusade again. Returning to France, he served in the fifth war of religion for Anjou, now king Henri III of France, but his badly underfunded army was unable to seriously impede the Protestant mercenary force under Casimir. He aligned himself with the Catholic Ligue that rose up in opposition to the generous Peace of Monsieur and fought in the sixth war of religion that resulted, serving at the sieges of La Charité-sur-Loire and Issoire. During 1576, he married Henriette de Savoie-Villars, securing a sizable inheritance in the south west, and the title of Admiral on the death of her father in 1578. Mayenne was granted full command of a royal army during the seventh war of religion in 1580, besieging the Protestant stronghold of La Mure successfully, and clearing several holdout towns after the peace. In 1582 he was obliged to surrender his title of Admiral to Joyeuse, a favourite of Henri. The following year he was involved in an abortive plan to invade England, though it came to nothing due to lack of funds.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Charles Emmanuel de Savoie, Duke of Nemours</span> Late 16th-century French noble and governor

Charles-Emmanuel de Savoie, prince de Genevois and duc de Nemours was a French prince étranger, governor, military commander and rebel during the latter French Wars of Religion. The eldest son of Jacques de Savoie and Anne d'Este, Nemours was a member of a prominent princely family. He entered French political at the age of 18 as a partisan of the second Catholic ligue, rallying cavalry to the rebel army, and assisting in forcing Henri III to capitulate to their demands. In the following years, the king was compelled by the terms of the peace to make war against Protestantism. The former rebel ligueurs hoped the 'cowed' king would afford them advantage, but Henri was keen to dilute the authority of the former rebels. As a result Nemours' position as colonel-general of the light cavalry was diluted with several appointments of royal favourites. During this period, Nemours coveted the governate of the Lyonnais, which had previously been held by his father before 1571. When François de Mandelot, who held the office, died in November 1588, Henri was compelled to recognise Nemours as the new governor due to his political weakness. Frustrated at his continued capitulations to the ligue, on 23 December 1588, Henri assassinated the leader of the ligue the duke of Guise. In the wake of the assassination, Nemours and other ligueur leaders were arrested by the king. Nemours was however quickly able to bribe his guards and secure freedom.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Charles, Duke of Aumale</span> Duc dAumale

Charles de Lorraine, duc d'Aumale was a French noble, military commander and governor during the latter French Wars of Religion. The son of Claude, Duke of Aumale and Louise de Brézé, Aumale inherited his families position in north eastern France, and his fathers title of Grand Veneur. Educated as a fervent Catholic, his clients engineered the creation of the first national Catholic Ligue in 1576, and he continued to support the remnants of the organisation after the Treaty of Bergerac caused much of the ligue to dissolve. During the sixth civil war that the ligue had induced, he fought with the king's brother Alençon at the sieges of La Charité-sur-Loire and Issoire. During the seventh civil war in 1579, he brought his ligueur forces to support the royal army under Marshal Matignon during the siege of La Fère but left on bitter terms with the commander when the siege was brought to a close on generous terms.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Louis II de Lorraine, cardinal de Guise</span> French prelate, Cardinal and politician

Louis II de Lorraine, cardinal de Guise was a French prelate, Cardinal and politician during the latter French Wars of Religion. The third son of François de Lorraine, duke of Guise and Anne d'Este Louis was destined for a career in the church. His uncle Cardinal Lorraine resigned his offices of Archbishop of Reims to him in 1574, and the death of his other uncle Louis I de Lorraine, Cardinal de Guise passed his ecclesiastical empire on to him upon his death in 1578. At which time the king made him Cardinal. Cardinal Guise actively involved himself in the first Catholic Ligue that rose up in opposition to the generous Peace of Monsieur which brought the fifth war of religion to a close in 1576. The ligue succeeded in resuming the civil war the next year and a harsher peace was concluded. Over the following years of peace, he would feud with Épernon, and receive Henri III's new honour when he was made a chevalier de l'Ordre du Saint-Esprit in 1578 among the first cohort. Finally reaching the ecclesiastical age at which he could assume his responsibilities as Archbishop of Reims in 1583 he entered the city in triumph and oversaw a council at which he pushed for the promulgation of the Tridentine Decrees.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Louis de Gonzague, Duke of Nevers</span> Italian-French soldier, governor and statesman (1539–1595)

Louis de Gonzague, Duke of Nevers was a soldier, governor and statesman during the French Wars of Religion. His father and brother were reigning dukes of Mantua. He came to France in 1549, and fought for Henri II of France during the latter Italian Wars, getting himself captured during the battle of Saint Quentin. Due to his Italian connections he was seen as a useful figure to have as governor of French Piedmont, a post he would hold until Henri III ceded the territory in 1574. In 1565 his patron, Catherine de' Medici secured for him a marriage with the key heiress Henriette de Clèves, elevating him to duke of Nevers and count of Rethel. He fought for the crown through the early wars of religion, receiving a bad injury in the third war. At this time he formed a close bond with the young Anjou, future king Henri III, a bond that would last until the king's death.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Charles I, Cardinal de Bourbon</span> French cardinal

Charles de Bourbon, Cardinal de Bourbon, Archbishop of Rouen was a French noble, prelate and disputed King of France as the Catholic Ligue candidate from 2 August 1589 – 9 May 1590. Born the third son of Charles of Bourbon, Duke of Vendôme and Françoise d'Alençon he was destined for a career in the church. As a member of the House of Bourbon-Vendôme he was one of the premier Prince du sang. Already having secured several sees, he was made a Cardinal by Pope Paul III in January 1548. In 1550 he received the office of Archbishop of Rouen making him the Primate of Normandy. The following year the promotion of Bourbon to Patriarch of the French church was threatened by King Henry II to secure concessions from the Pope. During the Italian Wars which resumed that year, Bourbon played a role by supporting Catherine de Medici's regency governments in France and briefly holding a lieutenant-generalship in Picardy. In 1557 the Pope appointed the Cardinals Bourbon, Lorraine and Châtillon as the leaders of an inquisition in France to root out heresy. The effectiveness of their inquisition would be obstructed by both the king and the Parlements and by July 1558 their appointments were voided by the Parlement of Paris.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Henri de Bourbon, Duke of Montpensier</span> French prince du sang and governor (1573-1608)

Henri de Bourbon, prince dauphin d'Auvergne, then prince de Dombes and duc de Montpensier was a French prince du sang, duke, military commander, governor and royal councillor during the final days of the French Wars of Religion. The son of François de Bourbon, Duke of Montpensier and Renée d'Anjou, Montpensier remained loyal to king Henri III after he entered war with the Catholic ligue (league) in December 1588. As a reward for his loyalty he was made first governor of Basse (lower) Auvergne, and then, upon the capture of the comte de Soissons he was established as governor of Bretagne.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Charles I, Duke of Elbeuf</span> Marquis of Elbeuf then Duke of Elbeuf

Charles I de Lorraine, duc d'Elbeuf was a French noble, military commander and governor during the French Wars of Religion. The son of the most minor cadet house of the children of Claude, Duke of Guise, Elbeuf initially lacked the prominence of his cousins, however his succession to the Rieux inheritance made him important. Over the following decades he would gradually consolidate more of it under his authority, until by his death in 1605, all of the county of Harcourt belonged to the Elbeufs. A young man in 1573, he travelled with the king's brother to assume his kingship of the Commonwealth. Upon the prince's return as Henri III of France in 1574 Elbeuf would receive the honour of assuming the position of grand chamberlain during the coronation. After the establishment of the Ordre du Saint-Esprit in 1579, Elbeuf would be elevated as a knight of this chivalric body. The following year he supported the king's brother Alençon in his negotiations with the Dutch States General to assume the role of king. In the wake of these successful, if fraught, negotiations, he was nominated by Alençon as lieutenant-general of his army. Elbeuf and Alençon would travel to the Spanish Netherlands where they would relieve the besieged town of Cambrai, to much acclaim from the citizenry. Shortly after this, relations soured between Elbeuf and the prince, and Elbeuf retired back to his estates with the excuse of an illness, being refused when he offered to return the following year. In September 1581, his marquisate of Elbeuf was elevated to a peerage duchy, greatly elevating Elbeuf's social standing.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">François de Bourbon, Duke of Montpensier</span> Late 16th-century French noble and governor

François de Bourbon, duc de Montpensier and prince dauphin d'Auvergne was a French noble, goveror, diplomat and military commander during the French Wars of Religion. The son of Louis de Bourbon, duke of Montpensier and Jacqueline de Longwy, Montpensier got his start in politics as he was made the successor to his father's control of the governorship of Dauphiné, taking over the post in 1567. He participated alongside his father in the siege of La Rochelle during the fourth civil war and with the defection of the Catholic Damville to the rebel cause during the fifth civil war, Montpensier was established as a parallel governor to Damville's charge over the territory of Languedoc, though Damville would never be formally dispossed. During this war he further held responsibility for one of the four royal armies, leading it into the Rhône valley. By 1582 Montpensier's father was nearing death, and he was chosen to replace his father as leader of a diplomatic mission to England to secure a marriage between the king's brother and Elizabeth I, however this would not be a success. Failing in his efforts to marry Elizabeth, Alençon turned his attentions to Nederland, accepting an invitation to become their king. Montpensier would lead one of the armies that reinforced him in the kingdom, though the prince would sabotage his position in the territory the following year.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Charles de Cossé, 1st Duke of Brissac</span> Marshal of France

Charles de Cossé, 1st Duke of Brissac was a French noble, military commander, governor, courtier and rebel during the latter French Wars of Religion. Son of the Charles I de Cossé and Charlotte d'Esquetot, Brissac was born into a family with a strong military reputation, both his father and uncle being French Marshals. As a second son Brissac was not initially intended to assume the titles of his father, but his brother Timoléon de Cossé was killed during a siege in 1569. Brissac was intimately involved in the French response to the Portuguese succession crisis of 1580, being selected by Catherine de Medici the queen's mother as one of the two military commanders for the expedition. In June 1582 he departed with a fleet under the overall authority of Strozzi, another Marshals' son. They were met with disaster at the Battle of Vila Franca do Campo, Strozzi was killed and Brissac took responsibility for extracting the ships that could be saved from the superior enemy. Catherine desired for him to lead another expedition but Henri overruled her, and Brissac looked to the duke of Guise for purpose, becoming involved in the abortive plans for an invasion of England. After these too fell through, Brissac involved himself in the revived Catholic ligue which rose in response to the death of the king's brother in June 1584 and the subsequent threat of a Protestant king. As a result of the dauphins death, Brissac received command of the Château d'Angers. The ligue resolved to make war on the king to get him to revise his policy, and Brissac campaigned in Normandie but was bested by Épernon at the siege of Gien. The war was brought to a close with a favourable settlement to the ligue in September.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Assassination of Henry I, Duke of Guise</span> Critical event in the French Wars of Religion

On 23 December 1588, Henri I, Duke of Guise was assassinated by the Quarante Cinq serving King Henri III. The event was one of the most critical moments of the French Wars of Religion. The duke had achieved, since 1584, considerable power over the kingdom of France, through his alliance with the Ligue movement, which he had co-opted for the cause of resisting the king's chosen successor of Navarre, a Protestant. Despite some effort to resist Guise and the ligue, Henri III had been forced by his weak position to accede to their continued demands. After the Day of the Barricades in May 1588, the ligue expelled Henri from Paris, and Henri was forced to make Guise lieutenant general of the kingdom, call an Estates General and sign an Edict of Union in July which prohibited Navarre from succeeding to the throne and outlawed Protestantism in France. Increasingly unable to bear the humiliations Guise and the ligue forced upon him, he was further outraged by the Estates General. The body, largely ligueur dominated, rejected his attempt to chastise Guise for forming associations, diverted tax income to Guise's cousin Mayenne and rejected all compromise with the king.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Claude de Lorraine, chevalier d'Aumale</span>

Claude de Lorraine, chevalier d'Aumale was a French churchman, noble and military commander during the French Wars of Religion. The second son of Claude, Duke of Aumale and Louise de Brézé, Aumale was destined for a life in the church. His uncles Cardinal Lorraine and Cardinal Guise ensured that he was granted many abbeys, that brought him a sizable income. At the age of 19 in 1583, he travelled to Malta to perform his service as a Knight of the Order of Saint John, finding success in his campaign.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Joachim de Dinteville</span> French noble and lieutenant-general

Joachim de Dinteville ( –1607) was a French noble, lieutenant-general and favourite of Henri III and Henri IV. Born into a prominent Champenois family of the noblesse seconde, Dinteville became close with Anjou, brother to Charles IX. In 1572 he was elevated to the position of Premier Gentilhomme de la Chambre by the duke, a key role in his household. He travelled with Anjou for the conduct of the siege of La Rochelle in 1573, and fought with him there. Upon Anjou's election as king of the Commonwealth, he travelled east with his lord, and served in his household for his brief tenure as king there. On Anjou's return to take the crown of France, Dinteville departed from his household, assuming responsibilities in Champagne, where he led the Second Estate of Troyes in opposing the attempt of Guise to affiliate the city with the national Catholic ligue. As Henri's brother Alençon moved closer to his plans of assuming the kingship of the rebellious Spanish Netherlands, Dinteville assisted the king in attempting to draw him, and thus France away from a potential confrontation with Spain. He assisted Henri's mother Catherine de Medici in her negotiations with Henri's cousin Navarre in 1579. In December of that year, Henri appointed Dinteville to replace the aged sieur de Barbizieulx as lieutenant-general of Champagne, making him second only to the governor Guise. Henri recognised Dinteville's valuable connections across the noblesse seconde of the province.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Louis d'Angennes</span> French noble, diplomat, governor and soldier

Louis d'Angennes, seigneur de Maintenon was a French noble, diplomat, governor and soldier during the French Wars of Religion. The son of Jacques d'Angennes and Isabelle Cottereau, he first achieved prominence in 1568, when he was established as governor of Le Mans. He reinvigorated the cities Catholic ligue for a fight against Protestantism. At that time he became grand maréchal de logis de la maison du roi, a post he would hold until 1579. He fought for the crown during the brief seventh civil war at the Siege of La Fère. In 1580 he was established as one of the king's Chambellan. The following year he would be elevated to the most senior order of French chivalry, being among the 1581 intake as a Ordre du Saint-Esprit. He and his brother Rambouillet participated in the Assembly of Notables that sought to consider a financial reform package from 1583-1584. His selection to participate in the Estates General of 1588 was forced through by the king over the objection of the governor of Chartres who had hoped to select a less royalist delegate. At the Estates, when word arrived that the duke of Savoie had invaded French held Saluzzo he whipped the Second Estate into a patriotic fervour with a speech advocating first the recapture of Saluzzo, and then the declaration of war against Spain. However the ligueur members of the other States got the nobility back into line, and his plan went nowhere.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gaspard de Schomberg</span> French soldier, courtier, and diplomat

Gaspard de Schomberg, comte de Nanteuil was a French soldier, courtier, diplomat, statesman and governor during the French Wars of Religion. Of Sachsen descent, Gaspard naturalised as French. He began his career during the first French War of Religion, when he fought with the Protestants against the crown, raising mercenaries in the Holy Roman Empire for the prince of Condé. The crown was impressed with his abilities, and co-opted his services, during the third civil war he would fight against the Protestants. In 1570 he was made a gentilhomme de la chambre du roi, and then a Chambellan and in these years he would conduct a series of diplomatic missions to further French foreign policy with the princes of the empire. In 1573 he helped prepare the way for Anjou, travel to his new kingdom, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. When Anjou returned to France as Henri III Schomberg supported him in the civil war he inherited, reporting on the mercenary situation in the empire, and fighting at the Battle of Dormans. His wealth during this period allowed him to take advantage of the Duke of Guise's financial woes, securing for himself the county of Nanteuil-le-Haudoin in 1578 for several hundred thousand livres.

François de Balsac, seigneur d’Entragues was a French noble, governor, military commander and courtier during the French Wars of Religion. Born into a prominent noble family from the Massif-Central, Entragues began his career serving as an officer in the company of the duke of Longueville. He caught the attention of the court, and was made lieutenant-general of the duchy of Orléans in 1568. This was shortly followed with specific authorities over the important city of Orléans in 1571. Unlike his two brothers Clermont and Dunes he was not a favourite of Henri III. He thus aligned with the duke of Guise and the Catholic ligue in the succession crisis that began in 1584 upon the death of the king's brother Alençon. When the ligue went to war with the king in 1585 in opposition to his chosen heir, his Protestant cousin Navarre, Entragues entered rebellion with them. Bringing the city of Orléans with him, he was at first driven back by royalist forces under the duke of Montpensier, holding off the duke with cannonades from the citadel, before returning to the offensive with an effort against Gien. This effort too was pushed aside by the royal favourite the duke of Épernon, however the war still concluded with a capitulation to the ligue.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">François du Plessis</span> Late Sixteenth Century French noble and royal official

François du Plessis, sieur de Richelieu was a French noble, military officer, and royal official during the French Wars of Religion. Born into an obscure noble family from Poitou, Richelieu began his career in the service of the Montpensier. He fought in the third war of religion under the command of the son of the duke of Montpensier at Jarnac and Moncontour. He again fought under the Montpensier, this time prince de Dombes during the fifth war of religion. It was on the recommendation of the Montpensier that Richelieu was elevated to the post of Grand Prévôt de l'Hôtel in February 1578, which the king combined with the new office of Grand Prévôt de France, giving him police authority both over the king's household and France at large. He would take to this role with enthusiasm, becoming a consistent advocate of the royal will. By the 1580s he had become a major creditor of the monarchy, serving as the intermediary between Italian banking families and the crown, this eventually brought him into financial ruin.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Antoine de Brichanteau</span> Late-16th-century French Noble and Admiral

Antoine de Brichanteau, Marquis de Beauvais-Nangis was a French noble, military commander, and royal favourite during the French Wars of Religion and early-17th century. Born into a noble Briard family, Beauvais-Nangis began his military career at a young age, serving during the third French War of Religion at Jarnac and Moncontour, among other engagements. At the former, his valour was recognised by the brother of the king, Anjou, who took him into his household. He fought at the famous Siege of La Rochelle in 1573 and joined Anjou in the Commonwealth when he was elected as king. Upon Anjou's return to France as King Henri III, Beauvais-Nangis was elevated as commander of the Picard regiments during the fifth War of Religion. In November of that year, he was granted the prestigious role of Maître de camp of the French Guard. In the sixth civil war, he fought at the siege of Hiers-Brouage. In 1579, he was dispatched on a diplomatic mission to Portugal. By his return, however, his relations were becoming increasingly frayed with the king. He had repeatedly found himself in dispute with other favourites of the king, and resented his lack of financial compensation for the diplomatic mission. In 1581, he embarrassed the king in a confrontation he undertook with Henri's brother Alençon, in which he killed several of the duke's men. Henri felt obliged to disgrace him, and in March of that year, he was relieved of the post of Maître de camp. He spent the next several years aggrieved on his estates in Brie.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Estates General of 1593</span>

The Estates General of 1593 was a national meeting of the three orders of France that met from January to August 1593. Unlike any other Estates General of France, it was convoked without the authority of a king, at the behest of duke of Mayenne, lieutenant-general of the kingdom for the rebel Catholic ligue (league) movement, which controlled Paris and many other cities. The Catholic ligue had reformed in 1584 to oppose the succession to the throne of the Protestant king of Navarre. They proposed the candidacy of Cardinal Bourbon, Navarre's Catholic uncle. In 1589, the king died, and while royalists recognised Navarre as Henri IV, ligueur (leaguer) controlled areas instead recognised Bourbon as Charles X. In 1590, Bourbon died, leaving the ligue without a king. Many ligueur nobles were happy without a king, but pressure was brought to bear on Mayenne, and by late 1592 he agreed to convoke an Estates General to elect a new one. This Estates would not be recognised by Henri.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Estates General of 1576</span> National meeting of the three orders of France

The Estates General of 1576 was a national meeting of the three orders of France; the clergy, nobility and common people. It was called as one of the many concessions made by the crown to the Protestant/moderate Catholic rebels to bring the Fifth War of Religion to a close. The generous terms of the peace made with the rebels provoked a strong backlash from militant Catholics who established the first Catholic Ligue (League) in opposition to the terms. Henri at first sought to suppress the ligue before attempting to co-opt it. Both king Henri III and the ligue looked to the upcoming Estates General to secure advantage. For the first time in the history of the Estates General, a fierce election campaign would follow between Protestant, royalist and ligueur candidates, in the end very few Protestants would be represented in the Estates.

References

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  3. ↑ Roelker 1996, p. 359.
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