In Minnesota, developmentally disabled people, most of whom were women, were involuntarily committed to state guardianship and sterilized, but today, many of those who were either committed to state guardianship or sterilized would not be considered disabled. Eugenic ideals were popular in the state during much of the early-mid 1900s.
In 1917, under pressure from Minnesota's Child Welfare Commission, 35 new laws were passed that related to children in the state,[3] called the Children's Code.[1] These laws gave the state the authority to involuntarily commit children who were "feebleminded", dependent, neglected, or "delinquent" to state guardianship. County probate judges were given the ability to commit any "feebleminded", "inebriate", or "insane" person without the consent of parents, guardians, or nearest kin.[3] This policy was shaped by Arthur C. Rogers, superintendent of the Minnesota School for the Feebleminded in Faribault, who supported compulsory commitment in the state. He also pushed for forced sterilization in Minnesota.[1]
Minnesota School for the Feebleminded in Faribault
In 1911, Rogers arranged for research to occur in Minnesota on the families of the "feebleminded". Two fieldworkers from the Eugenics Record Office in Cold Spring Harbor, New York came to Minnesota to study families of inmates at the Minnesota School for the Feebleminded. The results of the study showed an "appalling amount" of hereditary "defectiveness" in Hog Hollow, a community in Minnesota. The report, Dwellers in the Vale of Siddem, depicted mentally ill and disabled people as social menaces and described the living conditions of those in Hog Hollow as lower than that of animals. Dwellers in the Vale of Siddem advocated against the reproduction of the "feebleminded" and laid a foundation for eugenics in the state.[1]
From 1924 to 1959, probate judges and Mildred Thomson, director of the control board's Bureau for the Feebleminded and Epileptic, made decisions on which children to commit to institutions. Two physicians were supposed to be present for a decision to be made. This rule, however, could be eluded if the person was "obviously feebleminded". Factors like physical health, family relations, school and work records, home environment, appearance, and IQ scores influenced commitment decisions. Those who did not speak English were vulnerable to commitment because of an inability to pass English-language IQ tests. Low economic status and atypical behavior were considered symptoms of "feeblemindedness", which led to disproportionate commitment rates of working-class women.[3]
Lotus Coffman, President of the University of Minnesota
At the University of Minnesota, University President Lotus Coffman supported eugenic principles regarding racial segregation.[4] Coffman was president of the university from 1920 until 1938.[5] Coffman believed that racial segregation and a racial hierarchy was natural. He also believed that this "natural order" should be maintained by the control of reproduction. He thought that white, Protestant people should be allowed to reproduce, while people of color, Jewish, and Catholic people, as well as those with disabilities should have their reproduction controlled.[4]
Rogers brought Frederick Kuhlmann, a psychologist, to the state, who would become one of Minnesota's most effective advocates for eugenics usage.[1] In 1910, Kuhlmann, director of research at the Faribault School for the Feebleminded, pushed for IQ testing as a measure for "defectiveness".[3] He administered IQ tests of thousands of Minnesotan students.[1] He also helped to develop special education classes in the public schools of Minnesota to segregate student populations.[3] Kuhlmann was an advocate for statewide testing of students so that those not immediately recognizable as "feebleminded" could be better identified and managed. This work led to a higher percentage of Minnesotans being labeled as "feebleminded".[1]
Once under the guardianship of the state, individuals could not vote, make their own medical decisions, or own property. The vague definition of "feeblemindedness" led to the institutionalization of many "troublesome noncriminals" as a form of segregation, forcing them to leave their home communities and indefinitely institutionalizing them.[6]
By 1924, with 27 people were being committed every month, 1,802 people were placed under state guardianship. This policy caused state institutions to exceed their holding capacity and become overcrowded. Today, the majority of these new commitments would not be regarded as having a disability. County judges who usually had little training in social work were placed in charge of committing Minnesotans to state institutions. In many cases, IQ tests were used as evidence to wrongfully send whole families into state guardianship. The results of later tests proved that they were not "feebleminded". Eugenics was seen as a way to reduce the overpopulation problem in state institutions and most of the survivors were discharged three months after sterilizations were performed on them.[1]
Baby Health Contest
Rogers gave lectures on the topic of eugenics at the Minnesota State Fair in 1913. The fair also hosted the Baby Health Contest, which was grounded in eugenic ideology, that aimed to show off "human fitness". At the fair, Rogers stated that prize-winning babies were not necessarily complete models of "human fitness", instead claiming that the babies might be tainted with "an ancestry with a history of defectiveness."[7]
When he assessed babies for "fitness", Rogers looked for certain characteristics, which he called stigmata, to search for "defectiveness". Stigmata included shape of the ears, the underside of the jaw, racial angles, and asymmetry. These characteristics were purposely racist. The Baby Health Contest occurred in a 20 feet by 20 feet glass cage, which allowed the public to watch nurses and physicians, including Frederick Kuhlmann, examine the babies.[7]
Rogers and others promoted the idea that a single baby did not provide much data on the hereditary information they contained. Because of this, Dight and other eugenicists endorsed "Fitter Family" contests which examined whole families for "defectiveness". "Fitter Family" contests were never held at the Minnesota State Fair.[7]
Minnesota Eugenics Society
Charles Fremont Dight, a Minneapolis physician, is accredited as bringing the eugenics movement to Minnesota in the early 1920s. He approached this through eugenics education, limitations placed on marriages, and the segregation and sterilization of "unfit" individuals.[8][9] Dight was a resident physician at the Shattuck School in Faribault, Minnesota and later took a position as professor of physiology at Hamline Medical School in Saint Paul. Between 1921 and 1935, Dight wrote over 300 articles on eugenics that appeared in Minnesota newspapers as well as hosting radio talks and lectures on the subject.[10] In his editorials, Dight often compared human reproduction to the selective breeding techniques used in agriculture.[9] He was also an outspoken supporter of Adolph Hitler and the Holocaust, praising his efforts to "stamp out mental inferiority".[11][12][13] In response, Hitler invited Dight to Munich.[14]
In 1923, Dight organized the Minnesota Eugenics Society, which campaigned for a statewide eugenics law.[8] Members of the society included doctors, surgeons, scientists, lawyers, psychiatrists, physicians, and ministers. Albert E. Jenks, founder of the University of Minnesota's anthropology department, and E. P. Lyon, the dean of its medical school, were supporters of the Minnesota Eugenics Society. The society's members were all male, and lived throughout the entire state.[7] Dight was voted as president of the Minnesota Eugenics Society on February 2, 1927 during its first annual meeting[10] and remained president until his death in 1938.[9]
Sterilization law of 1925
In 1925, the Minnesota Legislature passed a bill, drafted by Representative Edwin L. MacLean,[15] which would sterilize the "feebleminded" and "insane", living in the state's mental asylums.[8] Dight considered people who were mentally ill, developmentally disabled, epileptic, criminals, and "sexual deviants" to be "feebleminded".[7] Governor Theodore Christianson signed this bill into law. This law took effect on January 8, 1926. On this day, eight women living in a mental asylum in Faribault were sterilized.[10] Unlike many other states in the United States, Minnesota's sterilization law required the consent of the person being operated on and the consent of their spouse or nearest kin.[3] However, when deemed incompetent—which many of the "feeblemineded" and "insane" were—the state was allowed to make this choice in the absence of a guardian.[9][16]
Dr. George G. Eitel, vice president of the Minnesota Eugenics Society and sterilization surgeon
Dr. George G. Eitel, vice present of the Minnesota Eugenics Society, performed the first 150 sterilization surgeries in the state. A consultation with a psychologist, usually Kuhlmann, was a requirement for the operation. This consultation always included at least one IQ test.[1]
Dr. David J. Vail became the director of the Minnesota Department of Welfare in 1961, and, under his leadership, the rate of sterilizations dropped. In 1975, the law was altered to provide Minnesotans with a larger protection from sterilizations. Forced sterilization is still sanctioned in the state when authorized by a court order.[1]
Impact
At least 2,204 Minnesota residents were sterilized because of the 1925 law. 77 percent of those sterilized were women.[17] The true number of those sterilized is unknown because Minnesota did not have an agency that tracked sterilizations, unlike other states.[9] The impact of sterilization was not as substantial as Dight had hoped it would be. Dight had hoped to sterilize nearly 10 percent of the state's population.[11]
Eugenics remained highly approved by many Minnesotans for decades after its institution in the state. Minnesotans like Charles Lindbergh,[9]Dr. Charles Mayo, and Dr. William Mayo were supporters of sterilizing the "unfit". The Mayo brothers founded Mayo Clinic. Dr. Chalres Mayo was very outspoken in his support of eugenics and the Kansas City Times called him an "apostle of the school of eugenics." Dr. William Mayo declined an invitation from Charles Fremont Dight to join the Minnesota Eugenics Society as its vice president in 1926.[18]
Dight Avenue in Minneapolis was named for Charles Fremont Dight[11] until March of 2022, when it was renamed to Cheatham Avenue, in honor of John Cheatham, Minneapolis's first Black fire captain.[19][14] After the murder of George Floyd, as a program to divest from white supremacy, the Minnesota Disability Justice Network and City Council Member Andrew Johnson worked to rename the street.[7] On March 17, 2022, the avenue was renamed to Cheatham Avenue.[19][14]
In his will, Dight left his estate to the University of Minnesota to found the Dight Institute for the Promotion of Human Genetics, later named the Institute for Human Genetics, which remained active until the 1960s.[20][8]
Minnesota Correctional Facility – Faribault, which operates on the former grounds of the Minnesota School for the Feebleminded
Many Native American communities still face the effects of intergenerational trauma caused by the residential schools.[21] The University of Minnesota Morris now operates on the campus of the Morris Industrial School for Indians, an American Indian boarding school operated by the Sisters of Mercy in Morris.[22][23] Native American students receive free tuition to the university due to a federal mandate.[22][24] As of 2018, over 20% of the students at the Morris campus identify as Native American. In other University of Minnesota campuses, only 2.5% of the student population identify as Native.[25]
Depiction
Sterilization and state guardianship in the Minnesota School for the Feebleminded is depicted in "Sequel to Love", a fictional short story by Meridel Le Sueur. In the story, Margaret is placed in the institution after she became pregnant while unmarried. Margaret is told that she will be unable to leave the institution until she becomes sterilized. She refuses to consent to a sterilization and remains an inmate at the conclusion of the story.[26][27]
a. ^^Two boarding schools were located in both Ponsford and White Earth.
Related Research Articles
Buck v. Bell, 274 U.S. 200 (1927), is a landmark decision of the United States Supreme Court, written by Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr., in which the Court ruled that a state statute permitting compulsory sterilization of the unfit, including the intellectually disabled, "for the protection and health of the state" did not violate the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution. Despite the changing attitudes about sterilization, the Supreme Court has never expressly overturned Buck v. Bell. It is widely believed to have been weakened by Skinner v. Oklahoma, 316 U.S. 535 (1942), which involved compulsory sterilization of male habitual criminals. Legal scholar and Holmes biographer G. Edward White, in fact, wrote, "the Supreme Court has distinguished the case [Buck v. Bell] out of existence". In addition, federal statutes, including the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 and the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, provide protections for people with disabilities, defined as both physical and mental impairments.
Carrie Elizabeth Buck was the plaintiff in the United States Supreme Court case Buck v. Bell, after having been ordered to undergo compulsory sterilization for purportedly being "feeble-minded" by her foster parents after their nephew raped and impregnated her. She had given birth to an illegitimate child without the means to support it. The surgery, carried out while Buck was an inmate of the Virginia State Colony for Epileptics and Feebleminded, took place under the authority of the Sterilization Act of 1924, part of the Commonwealth of Virginia's eugenics program.
In 1924, the Virginia General Assembly enacted the Racial Integrity Act. The act reinforced racial segregation by prohibiting interracial marriage and classifying as "white" a person "who has no trace whatsoever of any blood other than Caucasian". The act, an outgrowth of eugenicist and scientific racist propaganda, was pushed by Walter Plecker, a white supremacist and eugenicist who held the post of registrar of the Virginia Bureau of Vital Statistics.
The Eugenics Record Office (ERO), located in Cold Spring Harbor, New York, United States, was a research institute that gathered biological and social information about the American population, serving as a center for eugenics and human heredity research from 1910 to 1939. It was established by the Carnegie Institution of Washington's Station for Experimental Evolution, and subsequently administered by its Department of Genetics.
The American Eugenics Society (AES) was a pro-eugenics organization dedicated to "furthering the discussion, advancement, and dissemination of knowledge about biological and sociocultural forces which affect the structure and composition of human populations". It endorsed the study and practice of eugenics in the United States. Its original name as the American Eugenics Society lasted from 1922 to 1973, but the group changed their name after open use of the term "eugenics" became disfavored; it was known as the Society for the Study of Social Biology from 1973–2008, and the Society for Biodemography and Social Biology from 2008–2019. The Society was disbanded in 2019.
The Adelphi Genetics Forum is a non-profit learned society based in the United Kingdom. Its aims are "to promote the public understanding of human heredity and to facilitate informed debate about the ethical issues raised by advances in reproductive technology."
Ezra Seymour Gosney was an American businessman and philanthropist who supported the practice of eugenics. In 1928 he founded the Human Betterment Foundation (HBF) in Pasadena, California, with the stated aim "to foster and aid constructive and educational forces for the protection and betterment of the human family in body, mind, character, and citizenship," primarily through the advocacy of compulsory sterilization of people who are mentally ill or intellectually disabled. Rufus B. von KleinSmid, President of University of Southern California, was a co-founder.
Joseph Spencer DeJarnette was the director of Western State Hospital from 1905 to November 15, 1943. He was a vocal proponent of racial segregation and eugenics, specifically, the compulsory sterilization of the mentally ill.
In 1928, the Legislative Assembly of Alberta, Canada, enacted the Sexual Sterilization Act. The Act, drafted to protect the gene pool, allowed for sterilization of mentally disabled people in order to prevent the transmission of traits to offspring deemed undesirable.
Leilani Marietta (O'Malley) Muir, previously named Leilani Marie Scorah, was the first person to file a successful lawsuit against the Alberta government for wrongful sterilization under the Sexual Sterilization Act of Alberta. Her case led to the initiation of several other class action lawsuits against the province for wrongful sterilization. Muir's advocacy shed light on eugenics, institutionalisation, human rights for persons with a disability, and self-advocacy.
Lucien Howe was an American physician who spent much of his career as a professor of ophthalmology at the University at Buffalo. In 1876 he was instrumental in the creation of the Buffalo Eye and Ear Infirmary.
Charles Fremont Dight (1856–1938) was an American medical professor and promoter of the human eugenics movement in the U.S. state of Minnesota. Dight Avenue, a street in Minneapolis, was named for him until the city re-designated it as Cheatham Avenue in 2022.
Compulsory sterilization in Canada is an ongoing practice that has a documented history in the provinces of Alberta, Saskatchewan, and British Columbia.
Eugenics, the set of beliefs and practices which aims at improving the genetic quality of the human population, played a significant role in the history and culture of the United States from the late 19th century into the mid-20th century. The cause became increasingly promoted by intellectuals of the Progressive Era.
The Mental Deficiency Act 1913 was an act of Parliament of the United Kingdom creating provisions for the institutional treatment of people deemed to be "feeble-minded" and "moral defectives". People deemed "mentally defective" under this Act could be locked up indefinitely in a "mental deficiency colony", despite not being diagnosed with any mental illness or disability, or committing any crime.
Institutions for Defective Delinquents (IDDs) were created in the United States as a result of the eugenic criminology movement. The practices in these IDDs contain many traces of the eugenics that were first proposed by Sir Francis Galton in the late 1800s. Galton believed that "our understanding of the laws of heredity [could be used] to improve the stock of humankind." Galton eventually expanded on these ideas to suggest that individuals deemed inferior, those in prisons or asylums and those with hereditary diseases, would be discouraged from having children.
George Gotthilf Eitel was an American surgeon who designed and built Eitel Hospital in Minneapolis, Minnesota, in 1912. Eitel was its chief of staff for fifteen years until 1927, after which he was called proprietor.
Sterilization of Latinas has been practiced in the United States on women of different Latin American identities, including those from Puerto Rico and Mexico. There is a significant history of such sterilization practices being conducted involuntarily, in a coerced or forced manner, as well as in more subtle forms such as that of constrained choice. Forced sterilization was permissible by multiple states throughout various periods in the 20th century. Issues of state sterilization have persisted as recently as September 2020. Some sources credit the practice to theories of racial eugenics.
John Cheatham (1855–1918) was an American firefighter in Minneapolis. Born as an enslaved person in St. Louis, Missouri, Cheatham was freed at the age of eight by the Emancipation Proclamation, and then moved to Minneapolis, Minnesota, with his family shortly thereafter. In 1883, at the age of 33, Cheatham was appointed as one of the first Black firefighters in Minneapolis. He held several leadership positions during his fire department career. In 2022, the City of Minneapolis re-designated a street in the Longfellow community as Cheatham Avenue to honor his legacy of racial integration within the city’s fire department.
Mary A. G. Dight was an American physician. She served as president of the Hempstead Academy of Medicine, had charge of the Woman's Hospital of Philadelphia, and was a pioneer in pursuing the establishment of a woman's medical college in New Orleans. During her marriage to Charles Fremont Dight, she was a supporter of the human eugenics movement.
↑ Nekola, Charlotte; Rabinowitz, Paula, eds. (1987). Writing Red: An Anthology of American Women Writers, 1930-1940. New York: Feminist Pr. at the City Univ. of New York. ISBN978-0-935312-77-5.
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