Female genital mutilation in Nigeria

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Nigeria has the highest rate of female genital mutilation (FGM) [lower-alpha 1] in the world in total numbers. [1] It is usually experienced by girls aged 0 to 15 years old. [2] It involves either partial or complete removal of the vulva or other injury to the female genital organs and has no medical benefit. [2]

Contents

The practice is harmful to girls and women and a is seen as a violation of human rights. [3] Its consequences include infertility, maternal death, infections, and diminished sexual pleasure. [4]

As of 2012, 27% of Nigerian women aged 15 to 49 underwent FGM. [5] While in some regions of Nigeria, the prevalence of FGM has halved in the past 30 years as of 2016, [3] as of 2022 it is rising among girls aged 0–14, placing Nigeria as the third highest country for FGM worldwide in terms of percentage, according to UNICEF. [6]

In May 2015, then President Goodluck Ebele Jonathan signed a federal law banning FGM. [7] Opponents of the practice cite this move as an important step forward in Africa, as Nigeria is the most populous country and has set an important precedent. [4] However, activists and scholars stress the necessity of a cultural shift to fully eradicate the practice, as the new law alone may not address the broader issue of violence against women and girls and the status of women in Nigeria. [7]

Cultural perception

The practice is mostly carried out by traditional practitioners of FGM, who often lack complete knowledge of human anatomy and medical procedures. [2]

Despite the severity of the issue, societies in which the practice is prevalent view it as an integral part of their tradition and cultural identity. In communities that practice FGM, it is closely tied to ethnicity, culture, social norms, and sometimes seen as a religious obligation. In Nigeria, it is performed by Muslims, Christians and Jews. It has strong associations among Muslim communities, but is not mentioned in the Quran, the Muslim holy book, or the religious texts of Christianity or Judaism; the practise pre-dates the arrival of these religions in Nigeria. [2] In the majority of documented cases, it is family members (such as parents and grandparents, in particular mothers and grandmothers) who perform FGM on their daughters and granddaughters. It is associated with ensuring a daughter's virginity, which is deemed necessary for arranging her marriage, securing a proper bride price, and upholding family honour. [2] Efforts to eliminate FGM have been seen as a threat to Nigerian culture, particularly among older women who underwent the practise in their youths. [8]

It is also associated with increased sexual pleasure for men and increased fertility and ability to conceive for the women, as well as increasing the likelihood of the child's survival; however, these beliefs are untrue. Families often conform to the tradition due to social pressure and the fear of being excluded from the community. Girls who have not undergone the procedure are often considered unworthy of marriage and unclean, and it is a social taboo. They may also face bullying or discrimination within society. In many cases, girls themselves succumb to peer and societal pressure out of fear of stigma and rejection from their community, accepting the practice as normal and necessary. [2]

Achieving gender equality and empowering all women and girls is the fifth Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) but In Nigeria, it faces many problems due to many different resolutions not being in line with the religious and cultural beliefs of most of the Nigerian population and thus, unworthy to be enacted as a Nigerian law. [9]

Data shows that the majority of people believe FGM should end, but they cite social pressures to continue the practice with their daughters. [10] Men especially do not favour the practise and will not like it to continue. [11] People's opinion on whether female genital mutilation should continue or end depends a lot on their socio-economic status. While the poor and uneducated men will want female genital mutilation to continue, richer and educated people will like it to end. [11] Among women aged 15 to 49 polled between 2004–2015, 64% want to end the practice. [12]

Human rights activists believe the 2015 federal ban in Nigeria will influence other African countries—a region in which the practice is highly prevalent—because of Nigeria's economic and political strength within the continent. [4]

Types practiced

Female Genital Mutilation is a practice that is rooted with African culture, it is the partial or complete removal of the female clitoris for cultural or religious reasons. [13] Culturally, it is done to enhance the marriageability of a woman because she will be preserved for marriage. In cases of Female Genital Mutilation women will not be able to have sexual intercourse, this ensures that premarital sex does not take place. It is also done sometimes to enhance the social status of families that have their female children undergo the process because it means they have virgin children. [13] In religious cases, there is no evidence of female genital mutilation and cutting being allowed. It does not have a religious background.

Nigerians practice the following forms of female genital cutting/mutilation: [1]

Clitoridectomies are more common in the south of the country, and the more extreme methods, like infibulation, are prevalent in the north. [1] Often times tools like kitchen knives and broken glass are used to perform the cut.They are not usually sterilized before usage. It is a forceful act and is performed with the victim being held down by many women in the society. [14]

Consequences of Female Genital Mutilation

According to the World Health Organization, Female Genital Mutilation has no real health benefits. It has short and long term health risks that affect girls and women that have to undergo the procedure. It negatively affects the natural functioning of the female reproductive system and violates their human rights also.

Risks, Short-term

When Female Genital Mutilation takes place, the first risk is shock. It is not an appropriate procedure for the female body so the excessive pain can cause a female to go into shock. Excessive bleeding will also happen which could cause hemorrhage because a clitoral artery or blood vessel has been improperly cut. [15] Complications with urination could also happen because in some excessive cases the labia majora is sewn together. This blocks the opening of the bladder and makes urination very difficult and sometimes just impossible. Urination issues could also be due to tissue swelling and pain in the urethra. [15] Many infections are bound to happen because of the way the process takes place. Female Genital Mutilation is mostly done under unsanitary conditions, using non-sterile sharp objects to perform the cutting. Because of these conditions, the girls and women are subject to infections like wound infections and long term diseases like Human Immunodeficiency Virus which is caused by using contaminated objects. [15]

Mentally, Female Genital Mutilation could be damning to a person. It is bound to cause psychological distress to a person that has to undergo it. In children, loss of confidence and trust could take place. [16] Children will no longer trust the people that are supposed to care for and protect them because of the pain that has been caused. It is known that Female Genital Cutting is often done by female elders in the society. These are the people that usually also care for the children so these children could associate their caregivers with pain. The pain and trauma that goes along the cutting and mutilation could cause severe depression. [17]

Risks, Long-term

Long term, Female Genital Mutilation and cutting has major effects on the sexual and reproductive health of a woman. Out of all the types of mutilations, the type with most negative long-term effects is Type III infibulation. [16] Child birth is immediately affected when female genital cutting happens. In infibulation, the clitoris and labia major and minora are removed and the vaginal opening is sewn together. Because of this closing, there is almost no chance of child brith even though premarital sex is ultimately preserved. Reproduction can no longer take place. There are also different lasting injuries that could happen like chronic genital and reproductive tract infections, cysts and scar injuries could form. Because of the sewing of the vaginal opening together, there could be an accumulation of menstrual flow at the vagina and urethra. This causes major diseases and infections. [18]

Activism

Organizations seeking to end FGC/M in Nigeria include the World Health Organization, UNICEF, the International Federation of Gynaecology and Obstetrics, African Union, Devatop Centre for Africa Development, the Economic Commission for Africa, the Coalition of Advocates against Violence and the Population Council. [1] [3] as well as Justice, Development and Peace Movement (JDPM) of the Catholic diocese of Oyo.

The Circumcision Descendants Association of Nigeria (CDAN)—a group whose members perform FGM in Nigeria, has advocated to end the practice by creating new government programs and economic opportunities for those who perform female genital mutilation. [19]

In May 2015 former Nigerian president, Goodluck Ebele Jonathan, signed off on a law that permanently bans Female Genital Mutilation and cutting. The Violence Against Persons Prohibition Act (VAPP) aims to permanently prohibit female circumcision by including a penalty. People caught committing the crime are liable to two years in prison and a fine of one hundred thousand Naira. [20] Even with the new law, as of 2015 female circumcision was still practiced in six states. The VAPP act was a nationwide response that the former president had to the constant practice of Female Genital Mutilation. In 2018, an event organized by UN Women, the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) and the Nigerian Mission to the UN, with other partners to help promote change of perceptions for the women in Africa. [21] Highlighting themes such as human trafficking, suicide bombing, female genital mutilation/cutting and sexism and sexual harassment at the United Nations, [21] Ms. Itua, one of the presenters of the UN showcase the importance of women taking an active role in their nations said "As an African woman, I believe that my goal is to work with other women in creating awareness. Together we are stronger. Working together to be stronger to change the narrative coming out of Africa." [21]

In many rural areas of Nigeria, Female Genital Mutilation is still practiced. In these parts of Nigeria education is not easily accessed. It is important that Nigerian citizens are properly educated on the dangers and negative effects of female circumcision. According to studies, health education positively affects the attitude people have towards FGM. [22] With education, people are informed of the VAPP act and how the nation can fright against communities that still do not understand the negativities that come with female circumcision.

Other Nigerian organizations that constantly fight and protect girls and women from Female Genital Mutilation are:

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ Also known as female circumcision or female genital cutting (FGC)

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Clitoris</span> Erectile female sexual organ

In amniotes, the clitoris is a female sex organ. In humans, it is the vulva's most erogenous area and generally the primary anatomical source of female sexual pleasure. The clitoris is a complex structure, and its size and sensitivity can vary. The visible portion, the glans, of the clitoris is typically roughly the size and shape of a pea and is estimated to have at least 8,000 sensory nerve endings.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Female genital mutilation</span> Ritual cutting or removal of some or all of the vulva

Female genital mutilation (FGM) is the ritual cutting or removal of some or all of the vulva. The practice is found in some countries of Africa, Asia and the Middle East, and within their respective diasporas. As of 2023, UNICEF estimates that "at least 200 million girls... in 31 countries"—including Indonesia, Iraq, Yemen, and 27 African countries including Egypt—had been subjected to one or more types of FGM.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Labia minora</span> Flaps of skin on either side of the vaginal opening in the vulva

The labia minora, also known as the inner labia, inner lips, or nymphae, are two flaps of skin that are part of the primate vulva, extending outwards from the vaginal and urethral openings to encompass the vestibule. The labia minora are situated between the labia majora and together form the labia. They vary widely in size, color and shape from individual to individual.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Genital modification and mutilation</span> Permanent or temporary changes to human sex organs

Genital modifications are forms of body modifications applied to the human sexual organs, such as piercings, circumcision, or labiaplasty.

Infibulation is the ritual removal of the vulva and its suturing, a practice found mainly in northeastern Africa, particularly in Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Somalia, and Sudan. The World Health Organization refers to the procedure as Type III female genital mutilation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Female reproductive system</span> Reproductive system of human females

The female reproductive system is made up of the internal and external sex organs that function in the reproduction of new offspring. The human female reproductive system is immature at birth and develops to maturity at puberty to be able to produce gametes, and to carry a fetus to full term. The internal sex organs are the vagina, uterus, fallopian tubes, and ovaries. The female reproductive tract includes the vagina, uterus, and fallopian tubes and is prone to infections. The vagina allows for sexual intercourse and childbirth, and is connected to the uterus at the cervix. The uterus or womb accommodates the embryo, which develops into the fetus. The uterus also produces secretions, which help the transit of sperm to the fallopian tubes, where sperm fertilize ova produced by the ovaries. The external sex organs are also known as the genitals and these are the organs of the vulva including the labia, clitoris, and vaginal opening.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Labia</span> Parts of the vulva

The labia are the major externally visible portions of the vulva. In humans and other primates, there are two pairs of labia: the labia majora are large and thick folds of skin that cover the vulva's other parts while the labia minora are the inner folds of skin between the outer labia that surround and protect the urethral and vaginal openings.

Khalid Misri Adem is an Ethiopian who was both the first person prosecuted and first person convicted for female genital mutilation (FGM) in the United States, stemming from charges that he had personally excised his 2-year-old daughter's clitoris with a pair of scissors.

International Day of Zero Tolerance for Female Genital Mutilation is a United Nations-sponsored annual awareness day that takes place on February 6 as part of the UN's efforts to eradicate female genital mutilation. It was first introduced in 2003.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Clitoral hood reduction</span> Cosmetic surgical procedure

Clitoral hood reduction, also termed clitoral hoodectomy, clitoral unhooding, clitoridotomy, or (partial) hoodectomy, is a plastic surgery procedure for reducing the size and the area of the clitoral hood in order to further expose the glans of the clitoris.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Religious views on female genital mutilation</span> Female genital mutilation

There is a widespread view among practitioners of female genital mutilation (FGM) that it is a religious requirement, although prevalence rates often vary according to geography and ethnic group. There is an ongoing debate about the extent to which the practice's continuation is influenced by custom, social pressure, lack of health-care information, and the position of women in society. The procedures confer no health benefits and can lead to serious health problems.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Vulva</span> External genitalia of the female mammal

In mammals, the vulva consists of the external female genitalia. The human vulva includes the mons pubis, labia majora, labia minora, clitoris, vulval vestibule, urinary meatus, the vaginal opening, hymen, and Bartholin's and Skene's vestibular glands. The urinary meatus is also included as it opens into the vulval vestibule. The vulva includes the entrance to the vagina, which leads to the uterus, and provides a double layer of protection for this by the folds of the outer and inner labia. Pelvic floor muscles support the structures of the vulva. Other muscles of the urogenital triangle also give support.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Prevalence of female genital mutilation</span>

Female genital mutilation (FGM), also known as female genital cutting (FGC), female genital mutilation/cutting (FGM/C) and female circumcision, is practiced in 30 countries in western, eastern, and north-eastern Africa, in parts of the Middle East and Asia, and within some immigrant communities in Europe, North America and Australia. The WHO defines the practice as "all procedures that involve partial or total removal of the external female genitalia, or other injury to the female genital organs for non-medical reasons."

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Campaign against female genital mutilation in colonial Kenya</span>

The campaign against female genital mutilation in colonial Kenya (1929–1932), also known as the female circumcision controversy, was a period within Kenyan historiography known for efforts by British missionaries, particularly from the Church of Scotland, to stop the practice of female genital mutilation in colonial Kenya. The campaign was met with resistance by the Kikuyu, the country's largest tribe. According to American historian Lynn M. Thomas, female genital mutilation became a focal point of the movement campaigning for independence from British rule, and a test of loyalty, either to the Christian churches or to the Kikuyu Central Association, the largest association of the Kikuyu people.

Female genital mutilation in the United Kingdom is the ritual removal of some or all of the external female genitalia of women and girls living in the UK. According to Equality Now and City University London, an estimated 103,000 women and girls aged 15–49 were thought to be living with female genital mutilation (FGM) in England and Wales as of 2011.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Female genital mutilation in the United States</span> Occurrence and regulation of FGM in the US

Female genital mutilation (FGM), also known as female circumcision or female genital cutting, includes any procedure involving the removal or injury of part or all of the vulva for non-medical reasons. While the practice is most common in Africa, Asia, and the Middle East, FGM is also widespread in immigrant communities and metropolitan areas in the United States, and was performed by doctors regularly until the 1980s.

Female genital mutilation in Sierra Leone is the common practice of removing all or part of the female's genitalia for cultural and religious initiation purposes, or as a custom to prepare them for marriage. Sierra Leone is one of 28 countries in Africa where female genital mutilation (FGM) is known to be practiced and one of few that has not banned it. It is widespread in part due to it being an initiation rite into the "Bondo," though initiation rite-related FGM was criminalised in 2019. The type most commonly practised in Sierra Leone is Type IIb, removal of part or all of the clitoris and the labia minora. As of 2013, it had a prevalence of 89.6%.

In New Zealand, female genital mutilation (FGM) was made illegal in 1996 through an amendment to the Crimes Act 1961 when s204A was added. FGM is an issue in New Zealand because of the number of migrants from countries where FGM is commonly practised settling in New Zealand. FGM is referred to as procedures that, for non-medical reasons, intend to cause harm to female genital organs. The procedures may have negative health impacts by causing problems such as urinating, infections, severe bleeding and complications during childbirth. Procedures are normally carried out on girls from infancy to 15 years old. FGM is predominantly practised in countries throughout the Middle East, Asia and in Africa.

Female genital mutilation (FGM) is highly prevalent in Sudan. According to a 2014 Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey (MICS), 86.6 percent of women aged 15–49 in Sudan reported living with FGM, and said that 31.5 percent of their daughters had been cut. The most common FGM procedure in that country is Type III (infibulation); the 2014 survey found that 77 percent of respondents had experienced Type III.

<i>Woman, Why Do You Weep?</i> 1982 book by Asma El Dareer

Woman, Why Do You Weep? Circumcision and Its Consequences (1982) is a book by Sudanese physician Asma El Dareer about female genital mutilation in Sudan. Published in London by Zed Press in association with the Babiker Bedri Scientific Association for Women's Studies, the book summarizes research El Dareer conducted on female genital mutilation (FGM) for the medical faculty of the University of Khartoum.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 Okeke, TC; Anyaehie, USB; Ezenyeaku, CCK (2012-01-01). "An overview of female genital mutilation in Nigeria". Annals of Medical and Health Sciences Research. 2 (1): 70–3. doi: 10.4103/2141-9248.96942 . PMC   3507121 . PMID   23209995.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Siddhanta, Ankita; Sinha, Atreyee (December 2016). "Attitude and perception towards female circumcision: A study of vulnerability among women in Kenya and Nigeria". The Journal of Family Welfare. 62 (2): 35–48. Retrieved 2018-12-17– via www.researchgate.net.
  3. 1 2 3 Muteshi, Jacinta K.; Miller, Suellen; Belizán, José M. (2016-01-01). "The ongoing violence against women: Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting". Reproductive Health. 13: 44. doi: 10.1186/s12978-016-0159-3 . ISSN   1742-4755. PMC   4835878 . PMID   27091122.
  4. 1 2 3 Topping, Alexandra (2015-05-29). "Nigeria's female genital mutilation ban is important precedent, say campaigners". The Guardian . Retrieved 2016-05-28.
  5. ↑ "Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting in the United States: Updated Estimates of Women and Girls at Risk, 2012" (PDF). Public Health Reports. Mar 2016. Retrieved 29 May 2016.
  6. ↑ "UNICEF warns FGM on the rise among young Nigerian girls".
  7. 1 2 Goldberg, Eleanor (2015-06-08). "Nigeria Bans Female Genital Mutilation, But Advocates Say There's Still More Work To Do". The Huffington Post . Retrieved 2016-05-28.
  8. ↑ Agusiobo, Benedicta (2018-10-04). "EDUCATION OF THE GIRL-CHILD IN NIGERIA FOR A JUST, PEACEFUL, HARMONIOUS SOCIETY AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT". International Online Journal of Education and Teaching. 5 (4): 768–786. ISSN   2148-225X.
  9. ↑ Ayodeji Makinde, Olusesan (2017). "Rejection of the Gender and Equal Opportunities Bill in Nigeria: A setback for sustainable development goal five". Gender in Management. 32 (3): 234–240. doi:10.1108/gm-02-2017-0023.
  10. ↑ Muteshi, Jacinta K.; Miller, Suellen; Belizán, José M. (2016-01-01). "The ongoing violence against women: Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting". Reproductive Health. 13: 44. doi: 10.1186/s12978-016-0159-3 . ISSN   1742-4755. PMC   4835878 . PMID   27091122.
  11. 1 2 Hemuka, Ngozika Jane; Morgan, Angela; Bellingham-Young, Denise; Stonard, Karlie (2022-01-09). "Female genital mutilation: Nigerian Igbo men's low acceptance of the practice". Journal of Public Health. 31 (8): 1237–1248. doi:10.1007/s10389-021-01680-1. hdl: 2436/624503 . ISSN   1613-2238. S2CID   245813412.
  12. ↑ "Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting: A global concern" (PDF). United Nations Children’s Fund. UNICEF. 2016. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 February 2017. Retrieved 29 May 2016.
  13. 1 2 Shakirat, Ganiyu O; Alshibshoubi, Muhammad A; Delia, Eldia; Hamayon, Anam; Rutkofsky, Ian H (2020-09-04). "An Overview of Female Genital Mutilation in Africa: Are the Women Beneficiaries or Victims?". Cureus. 12 (9): e10250. doi: 10.7759/cureus.10250 . ISSN   2168-8184. PMC   7536110 . PMID   33042689.
  14. 1 2 Slack, Alison T. (November 1988). "Female Circumcision: A Critical Appraisal". Human Rights Quarterly. 10 (4): 437–486. doi:10.2307/761916. JSTOR   761916.
  15. 1 2 3 "Health risks of female genital mutilation (FGM)". www.who.int. Retrieved 2023-11-25.
  16. 1 2 "Female genital mutilation (FGM) frequently asked questions". United Nations Population Fund. Retrieved 2023-11-25.
  17. ↑ Omigbodun, Olayinka; Bella-Awusah, Tolulope; Groleau, Danielle; Abdulmalik, Jibril; Emma-Echiegu, Nkechi; Adedokun, Babatunde; Omigbodun, Akinyinka (February 2020). "Perceptions of the psychological experiences surrounding female genital mutilation/cutting (FGM/C) among the Izzi in Southeast Nigeria". Transcultural Psychiatry. 57 (1): 212–227. doi:10.1177/1363461519893141. ISSN   1363-4615. PMID   31870245. S2CID   209462830.
  18. ↑ Slack, Alison T. (1988). "Female Circumcision: A Critical Appraisal". Human Rights Quarterly. 10 (4): 437–486. doi:10.2307/761916. ISSN   0275-0392. JSTOR   761916.
  19. ↑ "How CDAN proposes to end Female Genital Mutilation in Nigeria - Ventures Africa". Ventures Africa. 2016-05-25. Retrieved 2016-05-29.
  20. ↑ Refugees, United Nations High Commissioner for. "Refworld | Nigeria: Application and enforcement of the May 2015 ban on female genital mutilation (FGM) (May 2015-January 2016)". Refworld. Retrieved 2023-11-26.
  21. 1 2 3 "Nigerian women artists unite at UN to change perceptions of women and Africa". UN News. 2018-03-09. Retrieved 2018-12-17.
  22. ↑ Asekun-Olarinmoye, Esther O.; Amusan, Oluwatoyin A. (January 2008). "The impact of health education on attitudes towards female genital mutilation (FGM) in a rural Nigerian community". The European Journal of Contraception & Reproductive Health Care. 13 (3): 289–297. doi:10.1080/13625180802075174. ISSN   1362-5187. PMID   18609348. S2CID   36397686.
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