Haiku in English

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A haiku in English is an English-language poem written in a form or style inspired by Japanese haiku. Like their Japanese counterpart, haiku in English are typically short poems and often reference the seasons, but the degree to which haiku in English implement specific elements of Japanese haiku, such as the arranging of 17 phonetic units (either syllables or the Japanese on ) in a 5–7–5 pattern, varies greatly.

Contents

Typical characteristics

In Japanese, a traditional haiku is a one-line poem that describes two things. However, in English, a traditional haiku usually has three lines arranged in a 5-7-5 pattern. The Haiku Society of America has two definitions of a haiku. The first defines the Japanese haiku as an unrhymed poem "recording the essence of a moment keenly perceived, in which Nature is linked to human nature" consisting of 17 on. The second definition applies to English-language haiku: "A foreign adaptation of [the Japanese form], usually written in three lines totaling fewer than 17 syllables." [1] In a book chapter discussing haiku form, Sato emphasizes that the definition does not say how many syllables each line ought to have. [2]

Haiku are normally associated with a focus on nature or the seasons and a division into two asymmetrical sections that juxtaposes two subjects (e.g. something natural and something human-made, two unexpectedly similar things, etc.). [1] [3] This juxtaposition was an important technique for haiku in English in both the 20th and 21st centuries. [4] There is usually a contemplative or wistful tone and an impressionistic brevity that lends the form to an emphasis on imagery, especially sensory imagery. [5] [6] [7] Haiku can contain occasional simile and metaphor. [8] Some haiku experts, like Robert Speiss and Jane Reichold, have said that a haiku should be expressed in a single breath. [9] [10] [11]

Length and structure

Many Japanese haiku are structured around the number of phonetic units known as on , with a three-phrase format in which 17 on are distributed in a 5–7–5 pattern (5 on in the first phrase, 7 in the second, and 5 in the third). [1] This has prompted an idea that English-language haiku should adopt a similar structure in which syllables are arranged across three lines in a 5–7–5 structure. Linguists, however, note two on often form a single syllable and that a 17-on phrase is, on average, about 12 syllables. [1] [12] Consequently, many contemporary English-language haiku poets work in forms of 10 to 14 syllables. [13] [14] [15] Modern haiku can be greater or fewer than the expected seventeen syllables. [16]

When translators of Japanese haiku split poems into three lines, it created a perception that a haiku in English ought to have three lines, even though Japanese haiku were commonly written in a single vertical line. [17] The most common variation from the three-line standard is one line, sometimes called a monoku. It emerged from being more than an occasional exception during the late 1970s. [18] One branch of modern haiku dispenses with syllable counts and prefers to define a haiku as two to four short phrases that are unrestricted, according to the poet Natsuishi Ban'ya. Poets with this looser definition sometimes use more than three lines in their poems [16]

History

First appearances

According to Charles Trumbull, the first haiku printed in English were three translations included in the second edition of William George Aston's A Grammar of the Japanese Written Language (1877). Aston's A History of Japanese Literature, first published in 1899 and a major reference source for early 20th-century poets, also described the "haikai" poetic form. [19] [20]

Britain and Australia

The first haiku composed in English, at least in form, were written in response to haiku contests. In Britain, the editors of The Academy announced the first known English-language haikai contest on April 8, 1899, shortly after the publication of William George Aston's History of Japanese Literature. [21] The Academy contest inspired other experimentation with the format. Bertram Dobell published more than a dozen haikai in a 1901 verse collection, and in 1903 a group of Cambridge poets, citing Dobell as precedent, published their haikai series, "The Water Party." [22] The Academy's influence was felt as far away as Australia, where editor Alfred Stephens was inspired to conduct a similar contest in the pages of The Bulletin. The prize for this (possibly first Australian) haiku contest went to Robert Crawford. [23]

American writers

Ezra Pound's influential haiku-influenced poem, "In a Station of the Metro", published in 1913, was the "first fully realized haiku in English," according to the editors of Haiku in English: The First Hundred Years. [24] In his essay "Vorticism," Pound acknowledged that Japanese poetry, especially hokku (the linked verse poem that haiku is derived from), was a significant influence on his poetry. It is likely that he first encountered Japanese poetry in the Poets' Club with T. E. Hulme and F. S. Flint around 1912. [25] In the essay, Pound described how he wrote a 30-line poem about the experience of exiting a metro train and seeing many beautiful faces. Two years later, he had reduced it to a single sentence in the poem In a Station of the Metro:

The apparition of these faces in a crowd;
Petals on a wet, black bough.

— Ezra Pound, "Vorticism", September 1914

Pound wrote that representing his experience as an image made it "a thing inward and subjective". [26]

In the United States, Yone Noguchi published "A Proposal to American Poets," in The Reader Magazine in February 1904, giving a brief outline of his own English hokku efforts and ending with the exhortation, "Pray, you try Japanese Hokku, my American poets! You say far too much, I should say." [27] [28] Noguchi was a bilingual poet writing in Japanese and English who was acquainted with Pound. He published an essay called "What Is a Hokku Poem" (1913) where he wrote that a hokku was an expression of longing toward nature that is "never mystified by any cloud or mist like Truth or Beauty". [29] He encouraged an objective standpoint by referring to Zen philosophy, which sees good and evil as human inventions. Noguchi published his own volume of English-language Japanese Hokkus in 1920 and dedicated it to Yeats. [30] During the Imagist period, a number of mainstream poets, including Richard Aldington, and F. S. Flint published what were generally called hokku, although critic Yoshinobu Hakutani wrote that compared to Pound and Noguchi, these were "labored, superficial imitators." [31]

Postwar revival

Significant poets

In the Beat period, original haiku were composed by Diane di Prima, Gary Snyder, and Jack Kerouac. [32] Kerouac became interested in Buddhism from reading Thoreau, and he studied Mahayana Buddhism and Zen Buddhism in conjunction with his work writing The Dharma Bums . As part of these studies, Kerouac referenced R. H. Blyth's four-volume Haiku series, which included a volume on Eastern culture. [33]

Richard Wright's interest in haiku began in 1959 when he learned about the form from beat poet Sinclair Beiles in South Africa. Wright studied the four-volume series by Blyth as well as other books on Zen Buddhism. He composed some 4,000 haiku between 1959 and 1960 during an illness and reduced them to 817 for a collection which was published posthumously. His haiku show an attention to the Zen qualities present in the haiku he read as models. [34]

Whitecaps on the bay:
A broken signboard banging
In the April wind.

— Richard Wright, collected in Haiku: This Other World, 1998

James W. Hackett is another influential haiku poet from this time period who agreed with Blyth that Zen was an essential element of haiku. Charles Trumbell wrote that in the mid-1960s, "his haiku were unquestionably among the best being written outside Japan". Hackett corresponded with Blyth for advice and encouragement in composing haiku, and Blyth promoted Hackett's poetry in his own work. Subsequent haiku poets did not insist as strongly on the connection of Zen with haiku. [35]

The first English-language haiku group in America, founded in 1956, was the Writers' Roundtable of Los Altos, California, under the direction of Helen Stiles Chenoweth. They also studied the Blyth collection, as well as an anthology translated by Asatarou Miyamori, The Hollow Reed (1935) by Mary J.J. Wrinn, and Haikai and Haiku (1958) among others. The group published an anthology in 1966 called Borrowed Water. [36] [37]

Publications

In 1963 the magazine American Haiku was founded in Platteville, Wisconsin, edited by the European-Americans James Bull and Donald Eulert. Among contributors to the magazine were poets James W. Hackett, O Mabson Southard, Nick Virgilio, Helen Chenoweth, and Gustave Keyser. Other co-editors included Clement Hoyt (1964), Harold Henderson (1964), and Robert Spiess (1966). [38] [36] In the second issue of American Haiku Virgilio published his "lily" and "bass" haiku, which became models of brevity, breaking the conventional 5-7-5 syllabic form, and pointing toward the leaner conception of haiku.. [39] [40] The magazine established haiku as a form worthy of a new aesthetic sense in poetry. [41]

The Haiku Society of America was founded in 1968 and began publishing its journal Frogpond in 1978. [42] In 1972, Lorraine Ellis Harr founded the Western World Haiku Society. [37]

American Haiku ended publication in 1968; Modern Haiku published its first issue in 1969. [38] [43] Haiku Highlights , was founded 1965 by European-American writer Jean Calkins and later taken over by Lorraine Ellis Harr and renamed Dragonfly: A Quarterly of Haiku (1972-1984). [44] Eric Amann published Haiku (1967-1970) and Cicada (1977-1982) in Canada. Cicada included one-line haiku and tanka. Leroy Kanterman edited Haiku West (1967-1975). [45]

The first Haiku North America conference was held at Las Positas College in Livermore, California, in 1991, and has been held on alternating years since then. [46] The American Haiku Archives, the largest public archive of haiku-related material outside Japan, was founded in 1996. It is housed at the California State Library in Sacramento, California, and includes the official archives of the Haiku Society of America. [47]

Publications in North America

English-language haiku journals published in the U.S. include Modern Haiku , Frogpond (published by the Haiku Society of America), Mayfly (founded by Randy and Shirley Brooks in 1986), Acorn (founded by A. C. Missias in 1998), Bottle Rockets (founded by Stanford M. Forrester), The Heron's Nest (founded by Christopher Herold in 1999, published online with a print annual), Tinywords (founded by Dylan F. Tweney in 2001). [48] [42] Some significant defunct publications include Brussels Sprout (edited from 1988 to 1995 by Francine Porad), Woodnotes (edited from 1989 to 1997 by Michael Dylan Welch), Hal Roth's Wind Chimes, and Wisteria. [49] Other American publishers of haiku books include Press Here, Bottle Rockets Press, Brooks Books, Turtle Light Press, and Jim Kacian's Red Moon Press. [50]

Publications in other English-speaking countries

In the United Kingdom, publications of Haiku include Presence (formerly Haiku Presence), which was edited for many years by Martin Lucas and is now edited by Ian Storr, and Blithe Spirit, published by the British Haiku Society and named in honor of Reginald Horace Blyth. In Ireland, twenty issues of Haiku Spirit edited by Jim Norton were published between 1995 and 2000, and Shamrock, an online journal edited by Anatoly Kudryavitsky, published international haiku in English from 2007 to 2022. [51] In Australia, twenty issues of Yellow Moon, a literary magazine for writers of haiku and other verse, were published between 1997 and 2006; Paper Wasp was published in Australia until 2016. Echidna Tracks is a biannual Australian haiku publication. Kokako is the journal of the New Zealand Poetry Society and Chrysanthemum (bilingual German/English) in Germany and Austria. [52] Two other online English-language haiku journals founded outside North America, A Hundred Gourds and Notes from the Gean, are now defunct. John Barlow's Snapshot Press is a UK-based publisher of haiku books. The World Haiku Club publishes The World Haiku Review. [53]

Notable English-language haiku poets

See also

Notes

    Related Research Articles

    <i>Haiku</i> Japanese poetry form

    Haiku is a type of short form poetry that originated in Japan, and can be traced back from the influence of traditional Chinese poetry. Traditional Japanese haiku consist of three phrases composed of 17 morae in a 5, 7, 5 pattern; that include a kireji, or "cutting word"; and a kigo, or seasonal reference. However, haiku by classical Japanese poets, such as Matsuo Bashō, also deviate from the 17-on pattern and sometimes do not contain a kireji. Similar poems that do not adhere to these rules are generally classified as senryū.

    Senryū (川柳) is a Japanese form of short poetry similar to haiku in construction: three lines with 17 morae. Senryū tend to be about human foibles while haiku tend to be about nature, and senryū are often cynical or darkly humorous while haiku are more serious.

    <span class="mw-page-title-main">Matsuo Bashō</span> Japanese poet

    Matsuo Bashō; born Matsuo Kinsaku, later known as Matsuo Chūemon Munefusa was the most famous Japanese poet of the Edo period. During his lifetime, Bashō was recognized for his works in the collaborative haikai no renga form; today, after centuries of commentary, he is recognized as the greatest master of haiku. He is also well known for his travel essays beginning with Records of a Weather-Exposed Skeleton (1684), written after his journey west to Kyoto and Nara. Matsuo Bashō's poetry is internationally renowned, and, in Japan, many of his poems are reproduced on monuments and traditional sites. Although Bashō is famous in the West for his hokku, he himself believed his best work lay in leading and participating in renku. As he himself said, "Many of my followers can write hokku as well as I can. Where I show who I really am is in linking haikai verses."

    <i>Kigo</i> "Sound word" used in Japanese poetry

    A kigo is a word or phrase associated with a particular season, used in traditional forms of Japanese poetry. Kigo are used in the collaborative linked-verse forms renga and renku, as well as in haiku, to indicate the season referred to in the stanza. They are valuable in providing economy of expression.

    <span class="mw-page-title-main">Japanese poetry</span> Literary tradition of Japan

    Japanese poetry is poetry typical of Japan, or written, spoken, or chanted in the Japanese language, which includes Old Japanese, Early Middle Japanese, Late Middle Japanese, and Modern Japanese, as well as poetry in Japan which was written in the Chinese language or ryūka from the Okinawa Islands: it is possible to make a more accurate distinction between Japanese poetry written in Japan or by Japanese people in other languages versus that written in the Japanese language by speaking of Japanese-language poetry. Much of the literary record of Japanese poetry begins when Japanese poets encountered Chinese poetry during the Tang dynasty. Under the influence of the Chinese poets of this era Japanese began to compose poetry in Chinese kanshi); and, as part of this tradition, poetry in Japan tended to be intimately associated with pictorial painting, partly because of the influence of Chinese arts, and the tradition of the use of ink and brush for both writing and drawing. It took several hundred years to digest the foreign impact and make it an integral part of Japanese culture and to merge this kanshi poetry into a Japanese language literary tradition, and then later to develop the diversity of unique poetic forms of native poetry, such as waka, haikai, and other more Japanese poetic specialties. For example, in the Tale of Genji both kanshi and waka are frequently mentioned. The history of Japanese poetry goes from an early semi-historical/mythological phase, through the early Old Japanese literature inclusions, just before the Nara period, the Nara period itself, the Heian period, the Kamakura period, and so on, up through the poetically important Edo period and modern times; however, the history of poetry often is different from socio-political history.

    Haibun is a prosimetric literary form originating in Japan, combining prose and haiku. The range of haibun is broad and frequently includes autobiography, diary, essay, prose poem, short story and travel journal.

    <span class="mw-page-title-main">Reginald Horace Blyth</span> British Japanologist (1898–1964)

    Reginald Horace Blyth was an English writer and devotee of Japanese culture. He is most famous for his writings on Zen and on haiku poetry.

    Hokku is the opening stanza of a Japanese orthodox collaborative linked poem, renga, or of its later derivative, renku. From the time of Matsuo Bashō (1644–1694), the hokku began to appear as an independent poem, and was also incorporated in haibun. In the late 19th century, Masaoka Shiki (1867–1902) renamed the standalone hokku as "haiku", and the latter term is now generally applied retrospectively to all hokku appearing independently of renku or renga, irrespective of when they were written. The term hokku continues to be used in its original sense, as the opening verse of a linked poem.

    <span class="mw-page-title-main">Yone Noguchi</span> Japanese writer of poetry, fiction, essays, and literary criticism

    Yonejirō Noguchi was an influential Japanese writer of poetry, fiction, essays and literary criticism in both English and Japanese. He is known in the west as Yone Noguchi. He was the father of noted sculptor Isamu Noguchi.

    Haikai may refer in both Japanese and English to haikai no renga (renku), a popular genre of Japanese linked verse, which developed in the sixteenth century out of the earlier aristocratic renga. It meant "vulgar" or "earthy", and often derived its effect from satire and puns, though "under the influence of [Matsuo] Bashō (1644–1694) the tone of haikai no renga became more serious". "Haikai" may also refer to other poetic forms that embrace the haikai aesthetic, including haiku and senryū, haiga, and haibun. However, haikai does not include orthodox renga or waka.

    The Haiku Society of America is a non-profit organization composed of haiku poets, editors, critics, publishers and enthusiasts that promotes the composition and appreciation of haiku in English. Founded in 1968, it is the largest society dedicated to haiku and related forms of poetry outside Japan, and holds meetings, lectures, workshops, readings, and contests, throughout the United States. The society's journal, Frogpond, first published in 1978, appears three times a year. As of 2022, the HSA has over 1,000 members.

    Kireji are a special category of words used in certain types of Japanese traditional poetry. It is regarded as a requirement in traditional haiku, as well as in the hokku, or opening verse, of both classical renga and its derivative renku. There is no exact equivalent of kireji in English, and its function can be difficult to define. It is said to supply structural support to the verse. When placed at the end of a verse, it provides a dignified ending, concluding the verse with a heightened sense of closure. Used in the middle of a verse, it briefly cuts the stream of thought, indicating that the verse consists of two thoughts half independent of each other. In such a position, it indicates a pause, both rhythmically and grammatically, and may lend an emotional flavour to the phrase preceding it.

    William J. Higginson was an American poet, translator and author most notable for his work with haiku and renku, born in New York City. He was one of the charter members of the Haiku Society of America, and was present at its formation meeting in 1968.

    <span class="mw-page-title-main">Jim Kacian</span> American poet

    James Michael Kacian is an American haiku poet, editor, translator, publisher, organizer, filmmaker, public speaker, and theorist. He has authored more than 20 volumes of English-language haiku, and edited scores more, including serving as editor-in-chief for Haiku in English: The First Hundred Years. In addition, he is founder and owner of Red Moon Press (1993), a co-founder of the World Haiku Association (2000), and founder and president of The Haiku Foundation (2009).

    <span class="mw-page-title-main">Alan Pizzarelli</span> American writer

    Alan Pizzarelli is an American poet, songwriter, and musician. He was born of an Italian-American family in Newark, New Jersey, and raised in the first ward’s Little Italy. He is a major figure in English-language haiku and Senryū.

    Lee Gurga is an American haiku poet. In 1997 he served as president of the Haiku Society of America. He was the editor of Modern Haiku magazine from 2002 to 2006, and is the current editor of the Modern Haiku Press. Gurga lives in Lincoln, Illinois, where he works as a dentist. Also involved in the translation of Japanese haiku into English, Gurga cites Matsuo Bashō, a Japanese poet from the Edo period, as one of his main appreciations. One of his most known haiku is about graduation day for students and is presented in his book Haiku: A Poet's Guide.

    The composition and translation of tanka in English begins at the end of the nineteenth century in England and the United States. Translations into English of classic Japanese tanka date back at least to the 1865 translation of the classic Ogura Hyakunin Isshu ; an early publication of originally English tanka dates to 1899. In the United States, the publication of tanka in Japanese and in English translation acquired extra impetus after World War II and was followed by a rise of the genre's popularity among native speakers of English.

    The Japanese haiku has been adopted in various languages other than Japanese.

    Sarumino is a 1691 Japanese anthology, considered the magnum opus of Bashō-school poetry. It contains four kasen renku as well as some 400 hokku, collected by Nozawa Bonchō and Mukai Kyorai under the supervision of Matsuo Bashō. Sarumino is one of the Seven Major Anthologies of Bashō, and, together with the 1690 anthology, Hisago, it is considered to display Bashō's mature style (Shōfū) at its peak. Bashō's influence on all four of the kasen in Sarumino was profound and when he sat with Bonchō, Okada Yasui and Kyorai at Yoshinaka Temple to write "Kirigirisu", he extolled them, "Let's squeeze the juice from our bones."

    The British Haiku Society (BHS) was formed in 1990 and aims to promote haiku and to teach and publish Haiku in English.

    References

    1. 1 2 3 4 "Official Definitions of Haiku and Related Terms". Haiku Society of America. Archived from the original on 27 May 2015.
    2. ↑ Sato 2023, p. 33.
    3. ↑ Higginson 1985, pp. 116–117.
    4. ↑ Rosenow 2022, p. 248.
    5. ↑ Garrison, Denis M (2006). Hidden River: Haiku. Modern English Tanka Press. p. iii. ISBN   978-0-615-13825-1.; Higginson 1985 , p. 119
    6. ↑ Reichhold, 2002 p.21
    7. ↑ Gurga, 2003 p.105
    8. ↑ Higginson 1985, p. 124.
    9. ↑ Spiess, Robert; Modern Haiku vol. XXXII No. 1 p. 57 "A haiku does not exceed a breath's length." ISSN 0026-7821
    10. ↑ Reichhold, Jane; Writing and Enjoying Haiku - A Hands-On Guide; Kodansha 2002 p.30 and p.75 ISBN   4-7700-2886-5
    11. ↑ Gurga, 2003, p.2 and p.15
    12. ↑ Shirane, Haruo. Love in the Four Seasons, in Acta Universitatis Carolinae, Orientalia Pragensia XV, 2005, p135
    13. ↑ Ross, Bruce; How to Haiku; Tuttle Publishing 2002 p.19 ISBN   0-8048-3232-3
    14. ↑ Gurga, Lee; Haiku - A Poet's Guide; Modern Haiku Press 2003 p.16 ISBN   0-9741894-0-5
    15. ↑ Higginson 1985, p. 101-102.
    16. 1 2 Sato 2023, p. 33-34.
    17. ↑ Sato 2023, p. 31-35.
    18. ↑ Van den Heuvel, Cor. The Haiku Anthology 2nd edition. Simon & Schuster 1986. ISBN   0671628372 p10
    19. ↑ Trumbull, Charles (2008). "Research Note: W. G. Aston" (PDF). Modern Haiku. 39 (3).
    20. ↑ Kacian, Rowland & Burns 2013, p. 308.
    21. ↑ Miller, Paul (2020). "Two Very Early Haiku Contests" (PDF). Frogpond. 43 (2).; "Academy and Literature".
    22. ↑ "The Water Party," Cambridge Review (1903), xiii.
    23. ↑ Tessa Wooldridge, "Haiku in the Bulletin, 1899," Australian Haiku Society, July 7, 2008
    24. ↑ Kacian, Rowland & Burns 2013, p. xxii.
    25. ↑ Hakutani 2022b , p. 211; Miner 1957 , pp. 572–573
    26. ↑ Hakutani 2022b , pp. 212–213; Miner 1957 , pp. 574–575
    27. ↑ Russell, Natalie. "Yone Noguchi and Haiku in the United States | The Huntington". huntington.org. The Huntington. Retrieved 30 July 2024.
    28. ↑ Noguchi, Yone (February 1904). "A Proposal to American Poets". The Reader Magazine. 3 (3): 248. Retrieved 30 July 2024.
    29. ↑ quoted in Hakutani 2022b , pp. 211, 214, 216
    30. ↑ Hakutani 2022b, pp. 214, 220.
    31. ↑ Hakutani 2022b, pp. 225.
    32. ↑ Johnson, Jeffrey (2012). "Haiku, Western". In Greene, Ronald; Cushman, Stephen; Cavanagh, Clare; Ramazani, Jahan; Rouzer, Paul (eds.). The Princeton encyclopedia of poetry and poetics (4th ed.). Princeton: Princeton University Press. pp. 594–595. ISBN   978-0691154916.
    33. ↑ Hakutani 2022a, pp. 61–62.
    34. ↑ Kiuchi 2022, pp. 175–177.
    35. ↑ Trumbull, Charles (March 2015). "Shangri-La: James W. Hackett's Life in Haiku". Juxtapositions. 1 (1).
    36. 1 2 Los Altos Writers Roundtable (1967). Borrowed Water: A Book of American Haiku (second ed.). Rutland, Vermont: Charles E. Tuttle Co. pp. 9–11, 127–128. Retrieved 30 July 2024.
    37. 1 2 "Lorraine Ellis Harr". www.ahapoetry.com. Aha! Poetry. Retrieved 30 July 2024.
    38. 1 2 Thomas, Shan. "American Haiku · Mineral Point Library Archives". mineralpointlibraryarchives.org. Mineral Point Public Library. Retrieved 29 July 2024.
    39. ↑ Sill, Geoffrey. "Nick Virgilio". Haikupedia. The Haiku Foundation.
    40. ↑ Moser, Elizabeth (2012). Looking Past the Lily: Layers of Meaning and Interconnectivity in Nick Virgilio's Haiku (MA thesis). Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey. pp. 44–45. Retrieved 30 July 2024.
    41. ↑ Kacian, Rowland & Burns 2013, pp. xxii–xxiii.
    42. 1 2 Trumbull, Charles. "Index of Frogpond, the Journal of the Haiku Society of America" (PDF). Haiku Society of America.
    43. ↑ Kacian, Jim (30 April 2020). "Charles Trumbull — Touchstone Distinguished Books Award Winner 2019". The Haiku Foundation. Retrieved 30 July 2024.
    44. ↑ Rosenow, Ce. "American Haiku Archives Honorary Curator Lorraine Ellis Harr". www.americanhaikuarchives.org. American Haiku Archives. Retrieved 30 July 2024.
    45. ↑ "Amann, Eric W." livinghaikuanthology.com. Living Haiku Anthology. Retrieved 30 July 2024.; "Leroy Kanterman". www.americanhaikuarchives.org. American Haiku Archives. Retrieved 30 July 2024.; Higginson 1985 , p. 73
    46. ↑ "Haiku North America (1991– )". Haikupedia. The Haiku Foundation. Retrieved 30 July 2024.
    47. ↑ "Mission of the American Haiku Archives". www.americanhaikuarchives.org. American Haiku Archives.
    48. ↑ "Welcome to Modern Haiku". www.modernhaiku.org. Modern Haiku.; "Mayfly Haiku Magazine". www.brooksbookshaiku.com. Brooks Books.; "Acorn: a Journal of Contemporary Haiku". Acorn Haiku.; "bottle rockets: the journal". bottle rockets press.; "The Heron's Nest - Staff". theheronsnest.com.; "About". tinywords. 19 October 2009.
    49. ↑ "Francine Porad". The Haiku Foundation.; "Michael Dylan Welch". The Haiku Foundation.; Miller, Paul. "Brief History of Wind Chimes (1981-1989)" (PDF). Modern Haiku. 52 (2): 45.
    50. ↑ "Graceguts - Press Here". www.graceguts.com. Press Here.; "bottle rockets press". bottle rockets press.; "Brooks Books Haiku Home Page". www.brooksbookshaiku.com.; "Handmade artist books and portrait photographs of businesses and homes". Turtle Light Press.; "Home". Red Moon Press.
    51. ↑ "Presence: Britain's leading independent haiku journal".; "Journal: Blithe Spirit". The British Haiku Society. 9 August 2010.; "Haiku in Ireland". irishhaiku.com. Irish Haiku Society.; Kudryavitsky, Anatoly. "Haiku from Ireland and the rest of the world". Shamrock. Retrieved 1 January 2021.
    52. ↑ "Publications". New Zealand Poetry Society. Archived from the original on 4 June 2023.; "Yellow moon: a literary magazine for poets and writers". catalogue.nla.gov.au. National Library of Australia.; Arden, Lynette (9 September 2016). "paper wasp". Australian Haiku Society. Retrieved 2 August 2024.; "About Echidna Tracks". Echidna Tracks. 3 November 2016.; "Chrysanthemum International Haiku Journal". www.chrysanthemum-haiku.net. The Haiku Foundation Digital Library.
    53. ↑ Ford, Lorin (2016). "100 Gourds". The Haiku Foundation Digital Library.; "Gean Tree Press". Archived from the original on 8 May 2009.; "Snapshot Press: publishers of the finest English-language haiku, tanka and other short poetry". www.snapshotpress.co.uk.; "World Haiku Review". The World Haiku Club.

    Works cited

    Further reading

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