Health effects of coffee

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The health effects of coffee include various possible health benefits and health risks. [1]

Contents

A 2017 umbrella review of meta-analyses found that drinking coffee is generally safe within usual levels of intake and is more likely to improve health outcomes than to cause harm at doses of 3 or 4 cups of coffee daily. Exceptions include possible increased risk in women having bone fractures, and a possible increased risk in fetal loss or decreased birth weight during pregnancy. [2] Results were complicated by poor study quality, and differences in age, gender, health status, and serving size. [2]

Digestion

A 1999 review found that coffee does not cause indigestion, but may promote gastrointestinal reflux. [3] Two reviews of clinical studies on people recovering from abdominal, colorectal, and gynecological surgery found that coffee consumption was safe and effective for enhancing postoperative gastrointestinal function. [4] [5]

In some people, coffee induces defecation within minutes of consumption. [5] [6] [7] [8] However, the specific mechanism of action and chemical constituents responsible are still unknown. [9]

Mortality

A 2014 meta-analysis found that coffee consumption (4 cups/day) was inversely associated with all-cause mortality (a 16% lower risk), as well as cardiovascular disease mortality specifically (a 21% lower risk from drinking 3 cups/day), but not with cancer mortality [10] with exception being oral cancer mortality. [11]

Additional meta-analyses corroborated these findings, showing that higher coffee consumption (2–4 cups per day) was associated with a reduced risk of death by all disease causes. [12] [13] An association of coffee drinking with reduced risk for death from various sources was confirmed by a widely cited prospective cohort study of ten European countries in 2017. [14]

Cardiovascular disease

Moderate coffee consumption is not a risk factor for coronary heart disease. [15] A 2012 meta-analysis concluded that people who drank moderate amounts of coffee had a lower rate of heart failure, with the biggest effect found for those who drank more than four cups a day. [16] A 2014 meta-analysis concluded that cardiovascular disease, such as coronary artery disease and stroke, is less likely with three to five cups of non-decaffeinated coffee per day, but more likely with over five cups per day. [17] A 2016 meta-analysis showed that coffee consumption was associated with a reduced risk of death in patients who have had a myocardial infarction. [18] The effect of no or moderate daily consumption of coffee on risk for developing hypertension has been assessed in several reviews during the 21st century. A 2019 review found that one to two cups consumed per day had no effect on hypertension risk, whereas drinking three or more cups per day reduced the risk, [19] a finding in agreement with a 2017 analysis which showed a 9% lower risk of hypertension with long-term consumption of up to seven cups of coffee per day. [20] Another review in 2018 found that the risk of hypertension was reduced by 2% with each one cup per day increment of coffee consumption up to 8 cups per day, compared with people who did not consume any coffee. [21] By contrast, a 2011 review had found that drinking one to three cups of coffee per day may pose a slightly increased risk of developing hypertension. [22]

The 2021 European Society of Cardiology Guidelines on Cardiovascular Disease Prevention in Clinical Practice state: "Non-filtered coffee contains LDL-C-raising cafestol and kahweol, and may be associated with an up to 25% increased risk of atherosclerosis (ASCVD) mortality by consumption of nine or more drinks a day. Non-filtered coffee includes boiled, Greek, and Turkish coffee and some espresso coffees. Moderate coffee consumption (3–4 cups per day) is probably not harmful, perhaps even moderately beneficial". [23]

Atrial fibrillation

The Women's Health Study showed an increased risk of atrial fibrillation with 2–3 cups/day of caffeinated coffee, [24] but other studies found either no effect or a protective effect. [25]

Parkinson's disease

Meta-analyses have consistently found that long-term coffee consumption is associated with a lower risk of Parkinson's disease. [2]

Type II diabetes

In a systematic review and meta-analysis of 28 prospective observational studies, representing over one million participants, every additional cup of caffeinated and decaffeinated coffee consumed in a day was associated, respectively, with a 9% and 6% lower risk of type 2 diabetes. [26]

Cancer

Research on the effects of coffee consumption on cancer risk generally has indicated no effect [27] [28] [29] [30]

Liver disease

Preliminary evidence indicates that coffee consumption may be protective against the progression of liver disease, although the possible mechanisms for such an effect remain unclear. [31]

Mental health

The UK National Health Service advises that avoiding coffee may reduce anxiety. [32] In chronic psychiatric patients, caffeine, the major active ingredient in coffee, is associated with anxiety. [33] [34] At high doses, typically greater than 300 mg, caffeine can both cause and worsen anxiety. [35] For some people, discontinuing caffeine use can significantly reduce anxiety. [36] Caffeine-induced anxiety disorder is a subclass of substance- or medication-induced anxiety disorder. [37] Populations that may be most impacted by caffeine consumption are adolescents and people with anxiety disorders. [38] Preliminary research indicated the possibility of a beneficial relationship between coffee intake and reduced depression. [2] [39] [40] Long-term preliminary research, including assessment of symptoms for dementia and cognitive impairment, was inconclusive for coffee having an effect in the elderly, mainly due to the poor quality of the studies. [2] [41]

See also

Related Research Articles

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Caffeine is a central nervous system (CNS) stimulant of the methylxanthine class. It is mainly used as a eugeroic (wakefulness promoter) or as a mild cognitive enhancer to increase alertness and attentional performance. Caffeine acts by blocking binding of adenosine to the adenosine A1 receptor, which enhances release of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. Caffeine has a three-dimensional structure similar to that of adenosine, which allows it to bind and block its receptors. Caffeine also increases cyclic AMP levels through nonselective inhibition of phosphodiesterase.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hypertension</span> Long-term high blood pressure in the arteries

Hypertension, also known as high blood pressure, is a long-term medical condition in which the blood pressure in the arteries is persistently elevated. High blood pressure usually does not cause symptoms itself. It is, however, a major risk factor for stroke, coronary artery disease, heart failure, atrial fibrillation, peripheral arterial disease, vision loss, chronic kidney disease, and dementia. Hypertension is a major cause of premature death worldwide.

The long-term effects of alcohol have been extensively researched. The health effects of long-term alcohol consumption on health vary depending on the amount consumed. Even light drinking poses health risks, but atypically small amounts of alcohol may have health benefits. Alcoholism causes severe health consequences which outweigh any potential benefits.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mediterranean diet</span> Diet inspired by the Mediterranean region

The Mediterranean diet is a diet inspired by the eating habits and traditional food typical of southern Spain, southern Italy, and Crete, and formulated in the early 1960s. It is distinct from Mediterranean cuisine, which covers the actual cuisines of the Mediterranean countries, and from the Atlantic diet of northwestern Spain and Portugal. While inspired by a specific time and place, the "Mediterranean diet" was later refined based on the results of multiple scientific studies.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cardiovascular disease</span> Class of diseases that involve the heart or blood vessels

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is any disease involving the heart or blood vessels. CVDs constitute a class of diseases that includes: coronary artery diseases, heart failure, hypertensive heart disease, rheumatic heart disease, cardiomyopathy, arrhythmia, congenital heart disease, valvular heart disease, carditis, aortic aneurysms, peripheral artery disease, thromboembolic disease, and venous thrombosis.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Multivitamin</span> Dietary supplement containing vitamins

A multivitamin is a preparation intended to serve as a dietary supplement with vitamins, dietary minerals, and other nutritional elements. Such preparations are available in the form of tablets, capsules, pastilles, powders, liquids, or injectable formulations. Other than injectable formulations, which are only available and administered under medical supervision, multivitamins are recognized by the Codex Alimentarius Commission as a category of food.

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Plant-based diet</span> Diet consisting mostly or entirely of plant-based foods

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Caffeine dependence is a condition characterized by a set of criteria, including tolerance, withdrawal symptoms, persistent desire or unsuccessful efforts to control use, and continued use despite knowledge of adverse consequences attributed to caffeine. It can appear in physical dependence or psychological dependence, or both. Caffeine is one of the most common additives in many consumer products, including pills and beverages such as caffeinated alcoholic beverages, energy drinks, pain reliever medications, and colas. Caffeine is found naturally in various plants such as coffee and tea. Studies have found that 89 percent of adults in the U.S. consume on average 200 mg of caffeine daily. One area of concern that has been presented is the relationship between pregnancy and caffeine consumption. Repeated caffeine doses of 100mg appeared to result in smaller size at birth in newborns. When looking at birth weight however, caffeine consumption did not appear to make an impact.

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References

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