Health effects of coffee

Last updated

The health effects of coffee include various possible health benefits and health risks. [1]

Contents

A 2017 umbrella review of meta-analyses found that drinking coffee is generally safe within usual levels of intake and is more likely to improve health outcomes than to cause harm at doses of 3 or 4 cups of coffee daily. Exceptions include possible increased risk in women having bone fractures, and a possible increased risk in fetal loss or decreased birth weight during pregnancy. [2] Results were complicated by poor study quality, and differences in age, gender, health status, and serving size. [2]

Digestion

A 1999 review found that coffee does not cause indigestion, but may promote gastrointestinal reflux. [3] Two reviews of clinical studies on people recovering from abdominal, colorectal, and gynecological surgery found that coffee consumption was safe and effective for enhancing postoperative gastrointestinal function. [4] [5]

In some people, coffee induces defecation within minutes of consumption. [5] [6] [7] [8] However, the specific mechanism of action and chemical constituents responsible are still unknown. [9]

Mortality

A 2014 meta-analysis found that coffee consumption (4 cups/day) was inversely associated with all-cause mortality (a 16% lower risk), as well as cardiovascular disease mortality specifically (a 21% lower risk from drinking 3 cups/day), but not with cancer mortality [10] with exception being oral cancer mortality. [11]

Additional meta-analyses corroborated these findings, showing that higher coffee consumption (2–4 cups per day) was associated with a reduced risk of death by all disease causes. [12] [13]

Cardiovascular disease

Moderate coffee consumption is not a risk factor for coronary heart disease. [14]

A 2012 meta-analysis concluded that people who drank moderate amounts of coffee had a lower rate of heart failure, with the biggest effect found for those who drank more than four cups a day. [15] A 2014 meta-analysis concluded that cardiovascular disease, such as coronary artery disease and stroke, is less likely with three to five cups of non-decaffeinated coffee per day, but more likely with over five cups per day. [16] A 2016 meta-analysis showed that coffee consumption was associated with a reduced risk of death in patients who have had a myocardial infarction. [17] The effect of no or moderate daily consumption of coffee on risk for developing hypertension has been assessed in several reviews during the 21st century. A 2019 review found that one to two cups consumed per day had no effect on hypertension risk, whereas drinking three or more cups per day reduced the risk, [18] a finding in agreement with a 2017 analysis which showed a 9% lower risk of hypertension with long-term consumption of up to seven cups of coffee per day. [19] Another review in 2018 found that the risk of hypertension was reduced by 2% with each one cup per day increment of coffee consumption up to 8 cups per day, compared with people who did not consume any coffee. [20]

A large 2024 study, [21] involving close to two hundred thousand participants using the UK Biobank, indicated that a habitual caffeine intake, at moderate levels of 200 mg - 300 mg of caffeine per day "was associated with a lower risk of new-onset CM [Cardiometabolic multimorbidity] and could play important roles in almost all transition phases of CM development." In particular, the study found that metabolites related to very low-density lipoproteins were reduced with higher metabolites related to high-density lipoproteins. The study found any caffeine intake in general reduced risks of CM, although did not find strong evidence that tea reduced the risk of stroke and Type 2 Diabetes.

By contrast, a 2011 review had found that drinking one to three cups of coffee per day may pose a slightly increased risk of developing hypertension. [22]

The 2021 European Society of Cardiology Guidelines on Cardiovascular Disease Prevention in Clinical Practice state: "Non-filtered coffee contains LDL-C-raising cafestol and kahweol, and may be associated with an up to 25% increased risk of atherosclerosis (ASCVD) mortality by consumption of nine or more drinks a day. Non-filtered coffee includes boiled, Greek, and Turkish coffee and some espresso coffees. Moderate coffee consumption (3–4 cups per day) is probably not harmful, perhaps even moderately beneficial". [23]

Parkinson's disease

Meta-analyses have consistently found that long-term coffee consumption is associated with a lower risk of Parkinson's disease. [2]

Type II diabetes

In a systematic review and meta-analysis of 28 prospective observational studies, representing over one million participants, every additional cup of caffeinated and decaffeinated coffee consumed in a day was associated, respectively, with a 9% and 6% lower risk of type 2 diabetes. [24]

Cancer

Meta-analyses on the effects of coffee consumption on cancer risk are inconclusive. [25] [26] [27]

The World Health Organization's 2016 IARC Monograph "found no conclusive evidence for a carcinogenic effect of drinking coffee" but found that drinking very hot beverages probably causes cancer of the oesophagus. [28]

Liver disease

According to The British Liver Trust, regular consumption of coffee may support liver health and reduce the risk of some liver diseases. [29]

Mental health

The UK National Health Service advises that avoiding coffee may reduce anxiety. [30] In chronic psychiatric patients, caffeine, the major active ingredient in coffee, is associated with anxiety. [31] [32] At high doses, typically greater than 300 mg, caffeine can both cause and worsen anxiety. [33] For some people, discontinuing caffeine use can significantly reduce anxiety. [34] Caffeine-induced anxiety disorder is a subclass of substance- or medication-induced anxiety disorder. [35] Populations that may be most impacted by caffeine consumption are adolescents and people with anxiety disorders. [36] Preliminary research indicated the possibility of a beneficial relationship between coffee intake and reduced depression. [2] [37] [38] Long-term preliminary research, including assessment of symptoms for dementia and cognitive impairment, was inconclusive for coffee having an effect in the elderly, mainly due to the poor quality of the studies. [2] [39]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Caffeine</span> Central nervous system stimulant

Caffeine is a central nervous system (CNS) stimulant of the methylxanthine class and is the most commonly consumed psychoactive substance globally. It is mainly used for its eugeroic, ergogenic, or nootropic (cognitive-enhancing) properties. Caffeine acts by blocking binding of adenosine at a number of adenosine receptor types, inhibiting the centrally depressant effects of adenosine and enhancing the release of acetylcholine. Caffeine has a three-dimensional structure similar to that of adenosine, which allows it to bind and block its receptors. Caffeine also increases cyclic AMP levels through nonselective inhibition of phosphodiesterase, increases calcium release from intracellular stores, and antagonizes GABA receptors, although these mechanisms typically occur at concentrations beyond usual human consumption.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Stimulant</span> Drugs that increase alertness

Stimulants are a class of drugs that increase alertness. They are used for various purposes, such as enhancing attention, motivation, cognition, mood, and physical performance. Some stimulants are naturally-occuring while others only occur synthetic. Some of the most common stimulants are caffeine, nicotine, amphetamines, cocaine, methylphenidate, and modafinil. Stimulants may be subject to varying forms of regulation, or outright prohibition, depending on jurisdiction.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hypertension</span> Long-term high blood pressure in the arteries

Hypertension, also known as high blood pressure, is a long-term medical condition in which the blood pressure in the arteries is persistently elevated. High blood pressure usually does not cause symptoms itself. It is, however, a major risk factor for stroke, coronary artery disease, heart failure, atrial fibrillation, peripheral arterial disease, vision loss, chronic kidney disease, and dementia. Hypertension is a major cause of premature death worldwide.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Type 2 diabetes</span> Form of diabetes mellitus

Type 2 diabetes (T2D), formerly known as adult-onset diabetes, is a form of diabetes mellitus that is characterized by high blood sugar, insulin resistance, and relative lack of insulin. Common symptoms include increased thirst, frequent urination, fatigue and unexplained weight loss. Other symptoms include increased hunger, having a sensation of pins and needles, and sores (wounds) that heal slowly. Symptoms often develop slowly. Long-term complications from high blood sugar include heart disease, stroke, diabetic retinopathy, which can result in blindness, kidney failure, and poor blood flow in the lower-limbs, which may lead to amputations. The sudden onset of hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state may occur; however, ketoacidosis is uncommon.

The long-term effects of alcohol have been extensively researched. The health effects of long-term alcohol consumption on health vary depending on the amount consumed. Even light drinking poses health risks, but atypically small amounts of alcohol may have health benefits. Alcoholism causes severe health consequences which outweigh any potential benefits.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mediterranean diet</span> Diet inspired by the Mediterranean region

The Mediterranean diet is a concept first invented in 1975 by the American biologist Ancel Keys and chemist Margaret Keys. The diet took inspiration from the eating habits and traditional food typical of Crete, much of the rest of Greece, and southern Italy, and formulated in the early 1960s. It is distinct from Mediterranean cuisine, which covers the actual cuisines of the Mediterranean countries, and from the Atlantic diet of northwestern Spain and Portugal. While inspired by a specific time and place, the "Mediterranean diet" was later refined based on the results of multiple scientific studies.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cardiovascular disease</span> Class of diseases that involve the heart or blood vessels

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is any disease involving the heart or blood vessels. CVDs constitute a class of diseases that includes: coronary artery diseases, heart failure, hypertensive heart disease, rheumatic heart disease, cardiomyopathy, arrhythmia, congenital heart disease, valvular heart disease, carditis, aortic aneurysms, peripheral artery disease, thromboembolic disease, and venous thrombosis.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Multivitamin</span> Dietary supplement containing vitamins

A multivitamin is a preparation intended to serve as a dietary supplement with vitamins, dietary minerals, and other nutritional elements. Such preparations are available in the form of tablets, capsules, pastilles, powders, liquids, gummies, or injectable formulations. Other than injectable formulations, which are only available and administered under medical supervision, multivitamins are recognized by the Codex Alimentarius Commission as a category of food.

The health effects of tea have been studied throughout human history. In clinical research conducted over the early 21st century, tea has been studied extensively for its potential to lower the risk of human diseases, but there is no good scientific evidence to support any therapeutic uses other than possibly increasing alertness, an effect caused by caffeine in the tea leaves.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Plant-based diet</span> Diet consisting mostly or entirely of plant-based foods

A plant-based diet is a diet consisting mostly or entirely of plant-based foods. It encompasses a wide range of dietary patterns that contain low amounts of animal products and high amounts of fiber-rich plant products such as vegetables, fruits, whole grains, legumes, nuts, seeds, herbs, and spices. Plant-based diets may also be vegan or vegetarian but do not have to be, as they are defined in terms of high frequency of plants and low frequency of animal food consumption.

Recurrent miscarriage or recurrent pregnancy loss (RPL) is the spontaneous loss of 2-3 pregnancies that is estimated to affect up to 5% of women. The exact number of pregnancy losses and gestational weeks used to define RPL differs among medical societies. In the majority of cases, the exact cause of pregnancy loss is unexplained despite genetic testing and a thorough evaluation. When a cause for RPL is identified, almost half are attributed to a chromosomal abnormality. RPL has been associated with several risk factors including parental and genetic factors, congenital and acquired anatomical conditions, lifestyle factors, endocrine disorders, thrombophila, immunological factors, and infections. The American Society of Reproductive Medicine recommends a thorough evaluation after 2 consecutive pregnancy losses; however, this can differ from recommendations by other medical societies. RPL evaluation can be evaluated by numerous tests and imaging studies depending on the risk factors. These range from cytogenetic studies, blood tests for clotting disorders, hormone levels, diabetes screening, thyroid function tests, sperm analysis, antibody testing, and imaging studies. Treatment is typically tailored to the relevant risk factors and test findings. RPL can have a significant impact on the psychological well-being of couples and has been associated with higher levels of depression, anxiety, and stress. Therefore, it is recommended that appropriate screening and management be considered by medical providers.  

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Caffeine dependence</span> Medical condition

Caffeine dependence is a condition characterized by a set of criteria, including tolerance, withdrawal symptoms, persistent desire or unsuccessful efforts to control use, and continued use despite knowledge of adverse consequences attributed to caffeine. It can appear in physical dependence or psychological dependence, or both. Caffeine is one of the most common additives in many consumer products, including pills and beverages such as caffeinated alcoholic beverages, energy drinks, pain reliever medications, and colas. Caffeine is found naturally in various plants such as coffee and tea. Studies have found that 89 percent of adults in the U.S. consume on average 200 mg of caffeine daily. One area of concern that has been presented is the relationship between pregnancy and caffeine consumption. Repeated caffeine doses of 100 mg appeared to result in smaller size at birth in newborns. When looking at birth weight however, caffeine consumption did not appear to make an impact.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Alcohol and cardiovascular disease</span> Effects of alcohol consumption on cardiovascular health

In a 2018 study on 599,912 drinkers, a roughly linear association was found with alcohol consumption and a higher risk of stroke, coronary artery disease excluding myocardial infarction, heart failure, fatal hypertensive disease, and fatal aortic aneurysm, even for moderate drinkers. Alcohol abuse may also cause occupational cardiovascular disease. The American Heart Association states that people who are currently non-drinkers should not start drinking alcohol.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nutrition and pregnancy</span> Nutrient intake and dietary planning undertaken before, during and after pregnancy

Nutrition and pregnancy refers to the nutrient intake, and dietary planning that is undertaken before, during and after pregnancy. Nutrition of the fetus begins at conception. For this reason, the nutrition of the mother is important from before conception as well as throughout pregnancy and breastfeeding. An ever-increasing number of studies have shown that the nutrition of the mother will have an effect on the child, up to and including the risk for cancer, cardiovascular disease, hypertension and diabetes throughout life.

Alcohol has a number of effects on health. Short-term effects of alcohol consumption include intoxication and dehydration. Long-term effects of alcohol include changes in the metabolism of the liver and brain, with increased risk of several types of cancer and alcohol use disorder. Alcohol intoxication affects the brain, causing slurred speech, clumsiness, and delayed reflexes. There is an increased risk of developing an alcohol use disorder for teenagers while their brain is still developing. Adolescents who drink have a higher probability of injury including death.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Perindopril</span> High blood pressure medication

Perindopril is a medication used to treat high blood pressure, heart failure, or stable coronary artery disease. As a long-acting ACE inhibitor, it works by relaxing blood vessels and decreasing blood volume. As a prodrug, perindopril is hydrolyzed in the liver to its active metabolite, perindoprilat. It was patented in 1980 and approved for medical use in 1988.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Diet and cancer</span> Connections between dietary habits and cancer

Many dietary recommendations have been proposed to reduce the risk of cancer, few have significant supporting scientific evidence. Obesity and drinking alcohol have been correlated with the incidence and progression of some cancers. Lowering the consumption of sweetened beverages is recommended as a measure to address obesity.

Caffeine-induced sleep disorder was a psychiatric disorder identified as resulting from overconsumption of the stimulant caffeine.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sweetened beverage</span> Type of beverage

Sugar-sweetened beverages (SSB) are beverages with added sugar. They have been described as "liquid candy". Added sugars include brown sugar, corn sweetener, corn syrup, dextrose, fructose, high fructose corn syrup, honey, invert sugar, lactose, malt syrup, maltose, molasses, raw sugar, sucrose, trehalose, and turbinado sugar. Naturally occurring sugars, such as those in fruit or milk, are not considered to be added sugars. Free sugars include monosaccharides and disaccharides added to foods and beverages by the manufacturer, cook or consumer, and sugars naturally present in honey, syrups, fruit juices and fruit juice concentrates.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Frank Hu</span> Nutrition researcher

Frank B. Hu is a Chinese American nutrition and diabetes researcher. He is Chair of the Department of Nutrition and the Fredrick J. Stare Professor of Nutrition and Epidemiology at the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, and Professor of Medicine at the Harvard Medical School.

References

  1. ↑ Myhrvold N (2024-06-08) [1999-07-26]. "Coffee - Brewing, Roasting, Varieties". In The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica (ed.). Britannica . Archived from the original on 2024-07-14. Retrieved 2023-07-09.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 Poole R, Kennedy OJ, Roderick P, et al. (2017-11-22) [2017-10-16]. "Coffee consumption and health: umbrella review of meta-analyses of multiple health outcomes". BMJ . 359: j5024. doi: 10.1136/bmj.j5024 . PMC   5696634 . PMID   29167102. Errata
  3. ↑ Boekema PJ, Samsom M, van Berge Henegouwen GP, et al. (1999-07-08). "Coffee and gastrointestinal function: facts and fiction. A review". Scandinavian Journal of Gastroenterology. Supplement . 34 (230): 35–39. doi:10.1080/003655299750025525. PMID   10499460. S2CID   22935422.
  4. ↑ Cornwall HL, Edwards BA, Curran JF, et al. (May 2020) [2019-06-13]. "Coffee to go? The effect of coffee on resolution of ileus following abdominal surgery: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials". Clinical Nutrition. 39 (5): 1385–1394. doi:10.1016/j.clnu.2019.06.003. PMID   31253438. S2CID   195766007.
  5. 1 2 Eamudomkarn N, Kietpeerakool C, Kaewrudee S, et al. (2018-11-26). "Effect of postoperative coffee consumption on gastrointestinal function after abdominal surgery: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials". Scientific Reports . 8 (1). 17349. Bibcode:2018NatSR...817349E. doi: 10.1038/s41598-018-35752-2 . PMC   6255780 . PMID   30478433.
  6. ↑ Sloots CE, Felt-Bersma RJ, West RL, et al. (2005) [2004-05-30]. "Stimulation of defecation: Effects of coffee use and nicotine on rectal tone and visceral sensitivity". Scandinavian Journal of Gastroenterology . 40 (7): 808–813. doi:10.1080/00365520510015872. PMID   16109656. S2CID   23622961.
  7. ↑ Dulskas A, Klimovskij M, Vitkauskiene M, et al. (November 2015). "Effect of Coffee on the Length of Postoperative Ileus After Elective Laparoscopic Left-Sided Colectomy". Diseases of the Colon & Rectum . 58 (11): 1064–1069. doi:10.1097/DCR.0000000000000449. PMID   26445179. S2CID   45213244.
  8. ↑ Nehlig A (2022-01-17) [2022-01-14, 2022-01-10, 2021-12-13]. "Effects of Coffee on the Gastro-Intestinal Tract: A Narrative Review and Literature Update". Nutrients . 14 (2): 399. doi: 10.3390/nu14020399 . PMC   8778943 . PMID   35057580.
  9. ↑ Francis A (2023-08-18). "Why Does Coffee Make You Poop?". Bon Appétit . Archived from the original on 2023-08-20. Retrieved 2023-10-27.
  10. ↑ Crippa A, Discacciati A, Larsson SC, et al. (2014-10-15) [2014-08-24]. "Coffee Consumption and Mortality From All Causes, Cardiovascular Disease, and Cancer: A Dose-Response Meta-Analysis". American Journal of Epidemiology . 180 (8): 763–775. doi: 10.1093/aje/kwu194 . PMID   25156996.
  11. ↑ Hildebrand JS, Patel AV, McCullough ML, et al. (2013-01-01) [2012-12-09]. "Coffee, Tea, and Fatal Oral/Pharyngeal Cancer in a Large Prospective US Cohort". American Journal of Epidemiology . 177 (1): 50–58. doi: 10.1093/aje/kws222 . PMID   23230042.
  12. ↑ Je Y, Giovannucci E (2014-04-14) [2013-11-27]. "Coffee consumption and total mortality: a meta-analysis of twenty prospective cohort studies". The British Journal of Nutrition . 111 (7). Cambridge University Press: 1162–1173. doi: 10.1017/S0007114513003814 . PMID   24279995. Archived from the original on 2022-08-31. Retrieved 2022-02-23.
  13. ↑ Zhao Y, Wu K, Zheng J, et al. (May 2015) [2014-08-04]. "Association of coffee drinking with all-cause mortality: a systematic review and meta-analysis". Public Health Nutrition . 18 (Supplement 7). Cambridge University Press: 1282–1291. doi: 10.1017/S1368980014001438 . PMC   10271516 . PMID   25089347.
  14. ↑ Wu Jn, Ho SC, Zhou C, et al. (November 2009) [2008-08-19]. "Coffee consumption and risk of coronary heart diseases: a meta-analysis of 21 prospective cohort studies". International Journal of Cardiology . 137 (3): 216–225. doi:10.1016/j.ijcard.2008.06.051. PMID   18707777.
  15. ↑ Mostofsky E, Rice MS, Levitan EB, et al. (July 2012) [2012-06-26]. "Habitual Coffee Consumption and Risk of Heart Failure: A Dose-Response Meta-Analysis". Circulation: Heart Failure . 5 (4): 401–405. doi:10.1161/CIRCHEARTFAILURE.112.967299. PMC   3425948 . PMID   22740040.
  16. ↑ Ding M, Bhupathiraju SN, Satija A, et al. (February 2014) [2013-11-07]. "Long-Term Coffee Consumption and Risk of Cardiovascular Disease: A Systematic Review and a Dose–Response Meta-Analysis of Prospective Cohort Studies". Circulation . 129 (6): 643–659. doi:10.1161/circulationaha.113.005925. PMC   3945962 . PMID   24201300.
  17. ↑ Brown OI, Allgar V, Wong KY (November 2016). "Coffee reduces the risk of death after acute myocardial infarction: a meta-analysis". Coronary Artery Disease. 27 (7): 566–572. doi:10.1097/MCA.0000000000000397. PMID   27315099. S2CID   7980392. Archived from the original on 2022-04-02. Retrieved 2022-02-23.
  18. ↑ D'Elia L, La Fata E, Galletti F, et al. (February 2019) [2017-02-08]. "Coffee consumption and risk of hypertension: a dose-response meta-analysis of prospective studies". European Journal of Nutrition . 58 (1): 271–280. doi:10.1007/s00394-017-1591-z. PMID   29222637. S2CID   7264285. Archived from the original on 2020-11-06. Retrieved 2020-09-29.
  19. ↑ Grosso G, Micek A, Godos J, et al. (2017-08-17) [2017-08-10, 2017-08-09, 2017-05-29]. "Long-Term Coffee Consumption Is Associated with Decreased Incidence of New-Onset Hypertension: A Dose-Response Meta-Analysis". Nutrients . 9 (8): 890. doi: 10.3390/nu9080890 . PMC   5579683 . PMID   28817085.
  20. ↑ Xie C, Cui L, Zhu J, et al. (February 2018) [2018-01-18]. "Coffee consumption and risk of hypertension: a systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of cohort studies". Journal of Human Hypertension . 32 (2): 83–93. doi:10.1038/s41371-017-0007-0. PMID   29302055. S2CID   3515374.
  21. ↑ Lu X, Zhu X, Li G, et al. (2024-09-17). "Habitual Coffee, Tea, and Caffeine Consumption, Circulating Metabolites, and the Risk of Cardiometabolic Multimorbidity". The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism. doi:10.1210/clinem/dgae552. PMID   39287934.
  22. ↑ Zhang Z, Hu G, Caballero B, et al. (June 2011) [2011-03-30, 2011-03-07, 2010-09-09]. "Habitual coffee consumption and risk of hypertension: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective observational studies". The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition . 93 (6): 1212–1219. doi: 10.3945/ajcn.110.004044 . PMID   21450934.
  23. ↑ Visseren FL, Mach F, Smulders YM, et al. (2021-09-07) [2021-08-30]. "2021 ESC Guidelines on cardiovascular disease prevention in clinical practice: Developed by the Task Force for cardiovascular disease prevention in clinical practice with representatives of the European Society of Cardiology and 12 medical societies With the special contribution of the European Association of Preventive Cardiology (EAPC)". European Heart Journal . 42 (34): 3227–3337. doi: 10.1093/eurheartj/ehab484 . PMID   34458905.
  24. ↑ Ding M, Bhupathiraju SN, Chen M, et al. (2014-01-11). "Caffeinated and Decaffeinated Coffee Consumption and Risk of Type 2 Diabetes: A Systematic Review and a Dose-Response Meta-analysis". Diabetes Care (Systematic Review & Meta-Analysis). 37 (2): 569–586. doi:10.2337/dc13-1203. PMC   3898757 . PMID   24459154.
  25. ↑ Akter S, Kashino I, Mizoue T, et al. (2016-08-02). "Coffee drinking and colorectal cancer risk: an evaluation based on a systematic review and meta-analysis among the Japanese population". Japanese Journal of Clinical Oncology . 46 (8): 781–787. doi: 10.1093/jjco/hyw059 . PMID   27174958. Archived from the original on 2019-09-29. Retrieved 2019-09-24.
  26. ↑ Bravi F, Tavani A, Bosetti C, et al. (2017-09-01). "Coffee and the risk of hepatocellular carcinoma and chronic liver disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective studies". European Journal of Cancer Prevention . 26 (5): 368–377. doi:10.1097/cej.0000000000000252. PMID   27111112. S2CID   25243023.
  27. ↑ Zhao LG, Li ZY, Feng GS, et al. (2020-02-20). "Coffee drinking and cancer risk: an umbrella review of meta-analyses of observational studies". BMC Cancer . 20 (1): 101. doi: 10.1186/s12885-020-6561-9 . PMC   7003434 . PMID   32024485.
  28. ↑ "IARC Monographs evaluate drinking coffee, maté, and very hot beverages" (PDF). World Health Organization. 2016-06-15. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2024-09-02.
  29. ↑ "Coffee and the liver". The British Liver Trust. 2024. Retrieved 2024-10-26.
  30. ↑ "Self-help: Generalised anxiety disorder in adults". UK: National Health Service. 2018-12-19. Archived from the original on 2019-01-27. Retrieved 2019-01-27.
  31. ↑ Winston AP, Hardwick E, Jaberi N (2005). "Neuropsychiatric effects of caffeine". Advances in Psychiatric Treatment. 11 (6). Cambridge University Press: 432–439. doi: 10.1192/apt.11.6.432 .
  32. ↑ Vilarim MM, Rocha Araujo DM, Nardi AE (August 2011). "Caffeine challenge test and panic disorder: a systematic literature review". Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics  [ de ]. 11 (8). Taylor & Francis: 1185–1195. doi:10.1586/ern.11.83. ISSN   1473-7175. PMID   21797659. S2CID   5364016.
  33. ↑ Smith AP (October 2002) [September 2002]. "Effects of caffeine on human behavior". Food and Chemical Toxicology . 40 (9): 1243–1255. doi:10.1016/S0278-6915(02)00096-0. PMID   12204388.
  34. ↑ Bruce MS, Lader MH (February 1989). "Caffeine abstention in the management of anxiety disorders". Psychological Medicine . 19 (1): 211–214. doi:10.1017/S003329170001117X. PMID   2727208. S2CID   45368729.
  35. ↑ Addicott MA (September 2014) [2014-05-28]. Grant JE (ed.). "Caffeine Use Disorder: A Review of the Evidence and Future Implications". Current Addiction Reports - Addictive Disorders in DSM-5. 1 (3): 186–192. doi:10.1007/s40429-014-0024-9. PMC   4115451 . PMID   25089257.
  36. ↑ O'Neill CE, Newsom RJ, Stafford J, et al. (May 2016) [2016-02-11, 2016-02-01, 2016-01-29, 2015-09-01]. "Adolescent caffeine consumption increases adulthood anxiety-related behavior and modifies neuroendocrine signaling". Psychoneuroendocrinology . 67: 40–50. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2016.01.030. PMC   4808446 . PMID   26874560.
  37. ↑ Wang L, Shen X, Wu Y, et al. (March 2016) [2015-09-02]. "Coffee and caffeine consumption and depression: A meta-analysis of observational studies". The Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry . 50 (3): 228–242. doi:10.1177/0004867415603131. PMID   26339067. S2CID   23377304.
  38. ↑ Grosso G, Micek A, Castellano S, et al. (January 2016) [2015-10-31]. "Coffee, tea, caffeine and risk of depression: A systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of observational studies". Molecular Nutrition & Food Research . 60 (1): 223–234. doi:10.1002/mnfr.201500620. PMID   26518745.
  39. ↑ Panza F, Solfrizzi V, Barulli MR, et al. (March 2015) [December 2014]. "Coffee, tea, and caffeine consumption and prevention of late-life cognitive decline and dementia: a systematic review". The Journal of Nutrition, Health & Aging . 19 (3): 313–328. doi:10.1007/s12603-014-0563-8. hdl: 11586/145493 . PMID   25732217. S2CID   8376733.

Further reading

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.