The term was coined by Robert Braidwood in 1948. He proposed that the Neolithic Revolution began in the Hilly Flanks because these areas received enough rainfall for agriculture without irrigation. He also observed that many of the wild progenitors of domesticated crops had their natural habitats in the Hilly Flanks, as did wild sheep and goat.[1] His theory was in opposition to the oasis theory of V. Gordon Childe, which placed the origins of agriculture in well-watered desert refugia such as Mesopotamia.[3] Ultimately, archaeological investigations proved Braidwood correct.[1]
The region has been the subject of numerous archaeological expeditions intending to discover more about its historical culture. One such archaeological investigation by the Danish Archaeological Expedition to Iraq (DAEI) aimed to investigate the early urbanism in the upper regions of Mesopotamia.[4] Previous survey work done in the Rania Plain, a region in the Hilly Flanks, has recorded settlement history dating back to the Late Chalcolithic Period.[4]
Studies on pottery and clay remains in the region uncover the activities of creative expression and entertainment in Neolithic societies that settled in the region.[5] Major emphasis in archaeological studies has been placed on the effect of the changes in climate on food management methods, particularly the shift from hunting and gathering to crop cultivation and livestock domestication.[6] Animal husbandry include the domestication of pigs, goats, sheep, and cattle. The crops frequently harvested include barley, wheat, legumes, and grains.[7]
Etymology
The term “hilly flanks” has been commonly associated with a region of fertile land typically characterised by a moderately mountainous “hilly” nature. The moderate nature of the hills in these regions are normally due to the close proximity of the region to a mountainous region. Hence, foothills in certain regions have been dubbed “hilly flanks”.
Robert John Braidwood, an American archaeologist from Michigan, led the Iraq-Jarmo Project in the 1950s, which consisted of carrying out interdisciplinary research in the foothills of the Zagros Mountains. He is believed to be one of the first to coin the phrase “the hilly flanks of the Fertile Crescent” to describe this particular region.[8]
Braidwood proposed his theory that the Hilly Flanks region was one of the first agricultural civilisations in the world given the sufficient amount of rainfall the region received.[8] This enabled societies to carry out agriculture without irrigation. Communities were able to raise livestock in these regions. Braidwood's theory was proposed as a counterargument to that of Australian archaeologist V. Gordon Childe.
Childe proposed his Oasis Theory, which argued that the regions of North Africa and Near East experienced desiccation, or a period of increased droughts, higher temperatures, and decreased precipitation.[9] The lack of rainfall resulted in less fertile land that posed issues for inhabitants of the region, which then forced civilisations to mobilise to oases and river valley regions in Mesopotamia. However, further archaeological research expeditions, such as the Iraq-Jarmo Project, provided evidence that supported Braidwood's theory.[10]
There are other instances where a region of land is given the designation of “the hilly flanks”. A team of anthropologists from the Department of Anthropology, Washington University in St. Louis, USA used the term “hilly flanks” to refer to the northern part of a Fertile Arc in China, similar to that of the Fertile Crescent in the Middle East.[11]
The Hilly Flanks (orange) curl around the green area, the Fertile Crescent.
Geography
The area pertaining to the hilly flanks is predominantly characterised as the foothills of the Zagros Mountains. Intercepting through the modern-day borders of Turkey, Iraq, and Iran, the region spans over 1000 miles from the lower central area of the Turkish peninsula, curling around the northern sector of the Tigris river, then running along the foothills of the Zagros Mountain range. The natural borders of this region are the Zagros Mountains to the north, the Iranian plateau to the east, the Tigris river to the south, and the lowlands of Mesopotamia to the west.[7]
In archaeology, the term Levant is used to describe the approximate historical region encompassing the land east of the Mediterranean in Western Asia. The Levant includes the parts of the modern-day nations of Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Israel, Palestine and Turkey. A large portion of the Hilly Flanks region lies within the northern highlands of the Levant.
Given its close proximity to the Tigris river in the Fertile Crescent, the land of the hilly flanks is fertile for agriculture and raising livestock.[12] The majority of fertile land most effective for agricultural use consist either of plains where rivers drains out of, or fertile valleys that run through the ridges of the foothills.[7]
The Shahrizor Plain is a prominent geographic region within the Hilly Flanks. The plain is formed by the Shahrizor basin, which is formed by the gradual descending height of the Azmar and Kurhakazhaw mountains.[7] Many modern villages and ancient mounds have settled along the basin. The Shahrizor basin is drained by many streams that join the Tanjero river. The folds of mountains that emerge in the southeast region of Shahrizor make the area difficult to traverse. The land south of the Shahrizor consists of steep, high ridges that make inhabiting and travelling difficult. The land is in the valleys of these ridges are narrow, posing issues for agriculture.[7]
The Hilly Flanks share similar characteristics with other foothill chains, including the alluvial fans along the Jordan Valley, the Inner Asian Mountain Corridor, which is a region spanning from the Atlai Mountains in Siberia to the Hindu Kush area of Afghanistan and Pakistan, and the northern China Foothill Arc. The characteristics shared include being located along elevated sites around river catchments and historically being early farming sites.[11]
Archaeology
Robert Braidwood believes that the settlements in the hilly flanks region are the world’s first village farming communities, evidence of which are derived from archaeological expeditions that studied the Agricultural Revolution in the Near East.[8] In 1950, Braidwood and his wife Linda set up the Jarmo Project to research the early domesticates in certain archaeological sites of interest in the hilly flanks region.[8] The Jarmo Project found evidence of floral and faunal remains that helped to indicate the shift from hunting and gathering of wild species to a mode of subsistence dependent on domesticated plants, animals and their products.[8]
Further archaeological expeditions from geologists and botanists provided evidence to supplement the understanding of Pleistocene glaciation and Holocene climate changes in the region.[13] The evidence was obtained through archaeological projects involving the coring of Lake Van, Turkey, Lake Zeribar and Lake Mirabad in Iran. The regional environmental studies indicate aridity and lower snow lines during the Pleistocene glaciation periods, and the Holocene climate change saw increased precipitation and the shift to the Mediterranean climate known today, consisting of dry summers and wet winters.[14]
The Neolithic site of Bestansur at the Shahrizor Plain, Sulaymaniyah, Iraqi Kurdistan
Despite the evidence gathered from the lake coring expeditions, there is a lack of understanding of the evolution history of the Shahrizor Plain. The plain's climate, characterised by higher altitudes and increased precipitation, present differing environmental patterns in comparison to the general trends provided by the study of the lake cores.[13]
The Pishdar and Rania plains, located in the hilly flanks region, have been the location of many archaeological expeditions involving excavations. Excavations at the sites of Bab-w-Kur in the Rania plain revealed the remains of “a series of large tripartite row houses and workshops, and a fortification wall that seems to surround parts of the lower mound.”[4] This area is given the nickname the ‘Red Mudbrick Town’. Analysis of the excavations in this region, along with accompanying pottery remains, suggest these findings date back to the Late Chalcolithic Period.[4]
Although there are ongoing archaeological projects and excavations, there have only been six archaeological sites of study in Iraqi Kurdistan, including Jarmo. The lower number of sites identified for the Early Neolithic Period in the Hilly Flanks region are explained by three primary reasons. First, morphogenesis may have taken place in the Northern Iraqi plain, resulting in the burial of sites by sedimentary deposits such as alluvium or colluvium. Second, evidence is difficult to locate on imagery, and the nature of their composition is that of fragile, fragmented material. Third, the sites have been destroyed from intensive agriculture in the region.[15]
The political escalation of the mid-1970s in Iraq[clarification needed] became an obstacle for researchers pursuing scientific studies in the hilly flanks region. Most archaeologists shifted their research to the adjacent Levant and Anatolia regions.[16] In the late 2000s, archaeological excavations resumed in the Iraqi Kurdistan region as the political situation stabilised.[4] Sites of the Neolithic period, including Bestansur in the Shahrizor Plain and Shimshara in the Rania Plain, were investigated to research methods of early farming.[16]
Pottery
Pottery and clay innovation was a major aspect of creativity and practice in the hilly flanks. Archaeological findings have uncovered remains of pottery dating back to the Neolithic era. The earliest Neolithic pottery primarily consisted of tokens and figurines.[5] The tokens are shaped as balls, cones, buttons, and ‘teardrops’. Figurines commonly depict reclining female individuals, usually with enlarged hips and thighs, which the culture viewed as a “sign of femininity.”[5]
The creation of clay figurines provide insights into the activities carried out during that time. The female figurines are believed to have been used for education on female bodily development and implies a period of discovering their body and identity.[5][clarification needed]
Ubaid pottery has been identified in Kall Karim, a region of the hilly flanks located between the Iraqi border and Kabir Kouh Mountains. Ubaid pottery is typically characterised by its black to brown, purple and dark green colours.[17]
Additional excavations found Late Chalcolithic pottery in the Rania and Peshdar plains in Northern Iran. The distinct features of this pottery include neckless jars with inverted rims, double-rimmed jars, cannon spouts, globular holemouths and bowls with inwardly turned bevelled rims. The expedition[which?] found these characteristics to be similar to those of material uncovered in the Syrian Jazirah region and other locations in northwestern Iraq.[15]
Agriculture
The hilly flanks are largely believed to be the origins of agriculture, particularly the use of domestic animals and plants. Jarmo, an archaeological site in northeastern Iraq in the hilly flanks region, raised animals such as goats, sheep, pigs, and cattle, and harvested crops such as wheat, barley, and legumes.[8][10]
Pig domestication occurred in the hilly flanks region, but discoveries found that there was an inconsistency in the pig management methods used throughout the region.[18] Pig management had an early introduction in the Jarmo region, while it was introduced at a later stage in the Zagros region.[19] The most likely explanation for the late arrival in different regions is the complex nature of the husbandry practices for managing pigs.[18] Environmental factors and the existing agricultural practices put in place in particular societies may have inhibited the introduction of pig management.[18]
Archaeological remains gathered by studies present evidence on the societal shift from hunting and gathering resources to producing food through agriculture and domesticating livestock. The first evidence of food resource management is believed to be dated back to the Upper Paleolithic Period.[6] The early Holocene climate change is a major reason for the shift to agriculture and herding methods. The change in climate prompted the improvement of human skills, technological innovations, and food management techniques required for successful food production.[6]
Excavations by the Joint Istanbul University-Chicago Oriental Institute Prehistoric Project studied an early-village farming site dating back to around 7000 B.C. called Cayönü in southeastern Turkey.[20] The Project gathered resources to learn more about Cayönü, but placed an emphasis on the collection of data that provided insight on the domestication of plants and animals. Evidence across all excavations showed a shift from the dependence on big wild animals, such as aurochs and red deers, to the raising of domestic sheep and goats.[20]
A noteworthy finding from the Joint Istanbul University-Chicago Oriental Institute Prehistoric Project was the low presence of grains and grain legumes. The researchers believe the poor preservation of the food plants in the upper levels may account for this diminished amount. The decline in traces of food plants may indicate a difference in dependency of food sources, from plant to animal.[20]
Shahrizor, a wide valley in the hilly flanks region bordered by the Zagros Mountains in the northeast and the mountainous Surdash region in the northwest, is known for its agricultural history. Various weeds and cereal grasses, such as wild barley, continue to grow in non-cultivated soils of the region. Around 1957, an estimated 30% of the land was used for grain cultivation, while around 50% of the land was used for animal husbandry.[13]
The Fertile Crescent is a crescent-shaped region in the Middle East, spanning modern-day Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine and Jordan, together with the northern region of Kuwait, the southeastern region of Turkey and the western portion of Iran. Some authors also include Cyprus and northern Egypt.
The Zagros Mountains are a long mountain range in Iran, northern Iraq, and southeastern Turkey. This mountain range has a total length of 1,600 km (990 mi). The Zagros mountain range begins in northwestern Iran and roughly follows Iran's western border while covering much of southeastern Turkey and northeastern Iraq. From this border region, the range continues to the southeast under also the waters of the Persian Gulf. It spans the southern parts of the Armenian highlands, the whole length of the western and southwestern Iranian plateau, ending at the Strait of Hormuz. The highest point is Mount Dena, at 4,409 metres (14,465 ft).
Jarmo is a prehistoric archeological site located in modern Iraq on the foothills of the Zagros Mountains. It lies at an altitude of 800 m above sea-level in a belt of oak and pistachio woodlands in the Adhaim River watershed. Excavations revealed that Jarmo was an agricultural community dating back to 7090 BC. It was broadly contemporary with such other important Neolithic sites such as Jericho in the Southern Levant and Çatalhöyük in Anatolia.
Tell Hassuna is a tell, or settlement mound, in the Nineveh Province (Iraq), about 35km south-west of Nineveh. It is the type site for the Hassuna culture.
The Little Zab or Lower Zab is a river that originates in Iran and joins the Tigris just south of Al Zab in the Kurdistan region of Iraq. It is approximately 400 kilometres (250 mi) long and drains an area of about 22,000 square kilometres (8,500 sq mi). The river is fed by rainfall and snowmelt, resulting in a peak discharge in spring and low water in summer and early fall. Two dams have been built on the Little Zab, regulating the river flow, providing water for irrigation and generating hydroelectricity. The Zagros Mountains have been occupied since at least the Lower Palaeolithic, but the earliest archaeological site in the Little Zab basin, Barda Balka, dates to the Middle Palaeolithic. Human occupation of the Little Zab basin has been attested for every period since then.
In the archaeology of Southwest Asia, the Late Neolithic, also known as the Ceramic Neolithic or Pottery Neolithic, is the final part of the Neolithic period, following on from the Pre-Pottery Neolithic and preceding the Chalcolithic. It is sometimes further divided into Pottery Neolithic A (PNA) and Pottery Neolithic B (PNB) phases.
Çayönü Tepesi is a Neolithic settlement in southeastern Turkey which prospered from circa 8,630 to 6,800 BC. It is located in Diyarbakır Province forty kilometres north-west of Diyarbakır, at the foot of the Taurus mountains. It lies near the Boğazçay, a tributary of the upper Tigris River and the Bestakot, an intermittent stream. It is an early example of agriculture.
Chia Jani is an archaeological site in Iran's Kermanshah Province. It is located near the village of Palang Gerd, on the Qouchemi stream, which flows to the Ravand River about 3 km (1.9 mi) south, in the south central part of the Islamabad Plain in the west-central Zagros Mountains.
The Pre-Pottery Neolithic (PPN) represents the early Neolithic in the Levantine and upper Mesopotamian region of the Fertile Crescent, dating to c. 12,000 – c. 8,500 years ago,. It succeeds the Natufian culture of the Epipalaeolithic Near East, as the domestication of plants and animals was in its formative stages, having possibly been induced by the Younger Dryas.
Tell Shemshara is an archaeological site located along the Little Zab in Sulaymaniyah Governorate, northeastern Iraq. The site was inundated by Lake Dukan until recently.
The prehistory of the Iranian plateau, and the wider region now known as Greater Iran, as part of the prehistory of the Near East is conventionally divided into the Paleolithic, Epipaleolithic, Neolithic, Chalcolithic, Bronze Age and Iron Age periods, spanning the time from the first settlement by archaic humans about a million years ago until the beginning of the historical record during the Neo-Assyrian Empire, in the 8th century BC.
Tell Maghzaliyah, in Nineveh Governorate, Iraq, is a prehistoric fortified aceramic Mesolithic and Neolithic site located approximately 7.5 km northwest of Yarim Tepe, with which it shows some similarities. It is situated near the Abra River, a tributary of the Habur River, which eventually drains into the Euphrates River. Tell Maghzaliyah shows the development of pre-Hassuna culture. There are also numerous connections to the Jarmo culture going back to 7000 BCE.
The Halaf-Ubaid Transitional period or HUT is a prehistoric period of Mesopotamia. It lies chronologically between the Halaf period and the Ubaid period. It is still a complex and rather poorly understood period. At the same time, recent efforts were made to study the gradual change from Halaf style pottery to Ubaid style pottery in various parts of North Mesopotamia.
Jeitun (Djeitun) is an archaeological site of the Neolithic period in southern Turkmenistan, about 30 kilometers north of Ashgabat in the Kopet-Dag mountain range. The settlement was occupied from about 7200 to 4500 BC possibly with short interruptions. Jeitun has given its name to the whole Neolithic period in the foothills of the Kopet Dag.
Chogha Golan is an aceramic Neolithic archaeological site in the foothills of the Zagros Mountains in Iran, about 200 m (656 ft) from the right bank of the Konjan Cham River. Located in a semi-arid region about 30 km (19 mi) north of Mehran, Chogha Golan is one of the earliest aceramic Neolithic sites found in Iran. The people of Chogha Golan relied primarily on the exploitation of wild plants and hunting. Chogha Golan is notable for the early presence of domesticated emmer wheat, dating to around 9,800 BP as such the archaeobotanical remains from Chogha Golan shows the earliest record of long-term plant management in Iran.
The prehistory of Mesopotamia is the period between the Paleolithic and the emergence of writing in the area of the Fertile Crescent around the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, as well as surrounding areas such as the Zagros foothills, southeastern Anatolia, and northwestern Syria.
Bestansur is a Neolithic tell, or archaeological settlement mound, located in Sulaimaniyah province, Kurdistan Regional Government, Iraq in the western Zagros foothills. The site is located on the edge of the Shahrizor Plain, 30 km to the south-east of Sulaimaniyah. It is on the UNESCO World Heritage Tentative List.
Dalma is the name given to the ancient culture whose widespread ceramic remains were excavated in central and northern valleys of the Zagros Mountains in north-western Iran. Dalma assemblages were initially discovered by the excavations carried out at Dalma Tepe and Hasanlu Tepe in south-western parts of Lake Urmia, in the valley of Solduz. Further excavations in Dalma Tepe as part of the Hasanlu Project of the University of Pennsylvania in 1961 uncovered more Dalma assemblages. The excavated materials included architectural, burial, and ceramic remains, clay, bones, artifacts, ground stones, and chipped stones. They indicated that Dalma culture dated back to the fifth millennium B.C. As stated by Akbar Abedi, an Iranian archaeologist, Dalma is one of the famous type sites located in north-western Iran.
Ginnig is a tell in Upper Mesopotamia that was occupied at the transition from the PPNB to the Pottery Neolithic.
M'lefaat is a tell, or archaeological settlement mound, in Upper Mesopotamia that was occupied during the Pre-Pottery Neolithic A.
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