Development
Early computers
In former Yugoslavia, at the end of 1962 there were 30 installed electronic computers, in 1966, there were 56, and in 1968 there were 95. [1] After receiving specialised training (in foreign computer institutes: in Paris in 1954 and 1955 (T. Aleksić and A. Mandžić); in Darmstadt and Vienna in 1959 (V. Masnikosa); in Cambridge in 1961 (P. Vrbanac) and in London in 1964 (D. Hristović), engineers from the BK-Vincha Institute, later accompanied with engineers form the Michailo Pupin Institute in Belgrade, led by professor doctor Tihomir Aleksić, began development of first domestic computer hardwares in late 1950s. This project resulted in creation of CER series of computers (Cifarski Elektronski Računar - ,,Digital Electronic Computer"), beginning with the model CER-10, developed in Vincha in year 1960, a computer based on vacuum tube and electronic relays.
By the year 1964, development of computer CER-20 was finished, which was intended to serve as an "electronic bookkeeping machine”, given the manufacturers recognition of the ever-growing accounting market. The special-purpose trend of business-computer development was continued with creation of the CER-22 model in 1967, intended for use in banks and communal businesses for online operations.
There were also other CER models, such as CER-12, CER-11, CER-111 and CER-200, but there is not enough information available.
During late 1970s, ,,Ei-Niš computer center” from Niš, Serbia, began constructing Mainframe H6000 computer models under Honeywell licence, which were intended to be used mainly for banking purposes. In the beginning, the computer was a great success, which led to expansion of local industry in areas lacking availability. The company was also constructing models such as H6 and H66, which remained popular even in early 2000s, under the name ,,Bull HN”. The H6 models were assembled in enterprises like telecom and ran the GCOS operating system. They were also used for education purposes - Honeywell's H6 model was installed in school of electronic engineering and trade ,,Nikola Tesla” in Niš, and was used for education and training during the 80s, until creation of personal computers.
Import
Over time, as it began to be more apparent that domestic science and industry are not yet in capacity to keep track with global computer development, foreign computers were allowed to be imported in the country, under specific conditions and permits. Consequently, this led to the market being overdominated by foreign products, reducing the relative market share of locally produced computers. On the contrary, and caused by the increasing demand on the market, systems made by local companies, such as Michailo Pupin Institute (initially CER series and later TIM series, e.g., TIM-100 and TIM-600) and Iskra Delta (e.g., model 800, based on PDP-11/34) continued with their development during the 1970s, even into the 1980s. [2]
Early 1980s: Home computer era
Many different companies that attempted to create microcomputers similar to home computers from 1980s, such as Ivo Lola Ribar Institute's Lola 8, Michailo Pupin Institute's TIM-001, EI's Pecom 32 and 64, [3] PEL Varazdin's Galeb (computer) and Orao, Ivel Ultra and Ivel Z3, etc. Josef Stefan Institute in Ljubljana made first 16-bit microcomputer PMP-11 under the leadership of Maryan Miletich, former technical director of Iskra-Delta in 1984. It had 8 MHz DEC T-11 CPU, maximum of 64 kB RAM, 10 MB hard disk, 8" diskette and two RS-232 ports for VT-100 video terminal and COM. Branko Jevtich modified RT-11 operating system so plenty of DEC-11 applications were available. Some 50 machines were made before IBM AT became widely available. Multiple factors prevented them from reaching success on markets outside the house computer market:
- they were overly expensive for individual consumers (specially in comparison to popular foreign computers such as ZX Spectrum, Commodore 64, etc.),
- limited selection of entertainment and other types of programs made them appear unattractive to the contemporary computer enthusiasts,
- they were unavailable for purchase in stores.
As a result, domestically manufactured computers of these generations were predominantly used in government institutions which were prohibited purchase of imported equipment. The computers which could have been connected to the existing mainframe computers as terminals reached greater success in business companies, while others were used in schools for education purposes. Given that all medium and large enterprises in the country were government-owned, this was still a significant part of the domestic market which explains both the unnatural, relative success of domestic business computers, as well as why IBM PC/AT and compatibles had a low influx in the local business market.
Government, in attempt to prevent import of foreign computers from growing, introduced restrictions in terms of price and memory size. In spite of those restrictions, consumers continued importing foreign computers, either illegaly or disassembled in parts, which made it possible for them to bypass restrictions. This case of improper legislation, and an example of what is called the ,,grey market” is what further contributed to the collapse of domestic home computer industry. By the middle of the decade home computer market was, much like in the rest of the Europe, dominated by Commodore 64 and ZX Spectrum as a runner up.
One domestic microcomputer model managed to stand out - Galaksija. Created by Voja Antonić, the entire do-it-yourself diagrams and instructions were published in the special issue of popular science magazine "Galaksija" called Računari u vašoj kući (Computers in your home) in January 1984. Although initially unavailable for purchase in assembled form, more than 1,000 enthusiasts built the microcomputer for games. Many were later produced for use in some schools.
Home computers were widely popular in SFRY - so much so that software (otherwise recorded on Compact Cassette) was broadcast by radio stations (e.g. Ventilator 202, Radio Študent Ljubljana etc.). Due to lack of regulation, copyright infringement of software was common and unlicensed copies for sale were freely advertised in popular computer magazines of the time, such as Računari, Svet kompjutera, Moj Mikro and Revija za mikroračunala. This distribution led to essentially every home computer owner having access to hundreds, if not thousands of commercial software titles. This would later cause benefits and drawbacks for the economy. Several student developers became computer experts since cheap and unauthorized development tools were common. However, they found themselves still competing with these warez domestically after trying to find a market for their skills.
Late 1980s: PC era
The second half of the 1980s saw the rise of popularity of IBM AT compatible among business users, and a slow movement towards 16-bits like Amiga and Atari ST computers in the enthusiast market, while mainstream home computing was still largely dominated by the ubiquitous C-64. Domestic computer hardware manufacturers produced a number of different IBM AT compatibles, such as TIM-microcomputers and Lira, and the first domestic Unix workstation (in one of the configurations, Iskra Delta's Triglav was shipped with Microsoft's Xenix) but their success was again limited to government-controlled companies that were required to purchase only domestic or legally imported technology.
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