Ammatina enna | |
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Primeval deities in Hurrian mythology | |
![]() Part of a relief from Yazılıkaya depicting primordial gods. [1] | |
Other names | Enna turenna, karuilieš šiuneš, kattereš šiuneš, taknaš šiuneš |
Equivalents | |
Mesopotamian equivalent | Ancestors of Enlil |
Ugaritic equivalent | Ilib |
Hurrian primeval deities were regarded as an early generation of gods in Hurrian mythology. A variety of Hurrian, Hittite and Akkadian labels could be used to refer to them. They were believed to inhabit the underworld, where they were seemingly confined by Teshub. Individual texts contain a variety of different listings of primeval deities, with as many as thirty names known, though many are very sparasely attested. Some among them were received from Mesopotamia, but others might have names originating in Hurrian or a linguistic substrate. No specific cult centers of the primeval deities have been identified, and they were not worshiped by all Hurrian communities. They were also incorporated into Hittite religion, presumably either from Kizzuwatna or Syria. Offers were made to them in sacrificial pits, examples of which have been identified in Urkesh and Hattusa. The primeval deities also appear in a number of Hurrian myths, including multiple sections of the Kumarbi Cycle and the Song of Release.
In Hittitology and Assyriology, Hurrian primordial deities are variously referred to as “primeval deities”, [2] [3] [4] “primeval gods”, [5] “former gods” [2] [6] or “ancient gods”. [7] [8] In Hurrian they were described as enna turenna (“lower gods”) or ammatina enna (“divine ancestors”, literally “divine grandfathers”). [9] [6] Andrea Trameri proposes that the term enna turenna had a broader meaning, and that it referred to all underworld deities, including a more specific group designated as ammatina enna. [8]
In Hittite, the same group was called karuilieš šiuneš, “primeval gods” or kattereš šiuneš, “lower gods”. [10] [lower-alpha 1] Both terms were calques from Hurrian. [8] They could also be called taknaš šiuneš, “gods of the underworld” or “gods of the earth”. [3] A logographic (“Akkadographic”) writing, A-NUN-NA-KE4, is also attested. [12] This term initially referred to major deities belonging to the Mesopotamian pantheon, but in later times in Akkadian texts it came to function as a label designating underworld deities. [8] Furthermore, the Hurrian group of primeval deities could be described with the Akkadian phrase ilū ša dārâti, “gods of eternity”. [13]
The primeval deities were regarded as members of early generations of gods which predated the rise of the head of the Hurrian pantheon, Teshub, to the rank of king of the gods. [14] According to Alfonso Archi, Hurrians received the idea of multiple successive generations of deities from Mesopotamia. [6] The primeval deities could be described as divine ancestors of other figures. [4] They were believed to dwell in the underworld, [10] which the Hurrians referred to as the “dark earth”, timri eže. [12] This term might also have been loaned into Hittite as dankuiš daganzipaš. [15] Based on a passage from a purification ritual (KBo 10.45 + ABoT 2.30), it was believed that they were driven there by Teshub, who subsequently made birds the standard offering for them in place of cattle and sheep. [16] Presumably they came to live there aftermath of a confrontation which took place either during Teshub's quest for kingship among the gods or shortly after he was enthroned, mythical events which were believed to have taken place in the distant past, early on in the history of the world. [17] As underworld deities, they were responsible for purification, and were meant to draw impurity and adversity to their realm. [18] However, in the case of Mesopotamian deities who came to be incorporated into the Hurrian group, the association with the underworld was of secondary importance. [19] Their inclusion in the group might have reflected their perception in areas on the periphery of the sphere of Mesopotamian cultural influence, where they plausibly could have been viewed as primordial figures. [20]
Primordial deities were associated with Kumarbi, [21] a high ranking Hurrian god. [22] They appear as his allies in myths. [23] They could also be linked with Allani, [21] a goddess regarded as the queen of the underworld. [12] In Hittite sources, they might instead appear alongside the Sun goddess of the Earth, [24] who was identified with her. [15] In the Hurrian ritual text KBo 17.94, the primeval deities are associated with Ishara. [25] Presumably the connection reflects this goddess’ own ties to the underworld and the deceased. [26] Alfonso Archi notes that the shared association with the primeval deities and with the underworld might have in turn influenced the well attested connection between Ishara and Allani. [5]
Hurro-Hittite ritual texts did not establish a single canonical list of primeval deities. [18] Their number in individual sources varies, with groupings of five, seven, eight, ten twelve and fifteen all attested. [27] Of these, seven and twelve are the most recurring numbers. [12] The latter represented completeness. [27] A total of around thirty names of individual primeval deities are known, but the precise identity of many of them remains opaque. [28] Most frequently listed sequence consists of Nara, Namšara, Minki, Ammunki, Ammizzadu, Tuḫuši, Alalu, Anu, Antu, Apantu, Enlil and Ninlil. [29] The names of many of the primeval deities were arranged in texts in rhyming pairs, according to Piotr Taracha for magical reasons. [30] Triads are also attested. [31]
Gernot Wilhelm argues that the fact the group was referred to ammatina enna, “divine grandfathers”, indicates that the seven best attested deities belonging to this category (Nara, Namšara, Minki, Ammunki, Ammizzadu, Tuḫuši, Alalu) were all male. [32] This assumption is also accepted by Amir Gilan. [33] He additionally notes that the twelve primeval deities depicted in Yazılıkaya are male too, but also that in addition to the group of seven possibly male gods, female members of the group are attested in textual sources. [4] Examples include Apantu [34] and Zulki. [19]
Piotr Taracha interprets the lists of primeval deities attested in various texts as combinations of figures received from Mesopotamia and from a “local substrate”. [30] He also states that some of their names are Hurrian. [35] According to Gernot Wilhelm, many of the names which do not have Mesopotamian origin cannot be explained in any language, and might have originated in modern Syria. [12] He also notes that the absence of the primeval deities from Mitanni sources makes it implausible that the group originated in Upper Mesopotamia, as sometimes suggested. [32] Volkert Haas argues that their names were received by the Hurrians from a non-Semitic substrate language, with Mesopotamian deities added to the group later on. [36] Alfonso Archi instead argues some of the names represent corrupted forms of Mesopotamian theonyms, possibly reflecting early transfer. [37]
Name | Origin | Details |
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Ābi | Hurrian [38] | Ābi, “pit”, could be invoked among the primeval deities, as attested in the ritual CTH 446. [19] According to Alfonso Archi, the name should be understood as a reference to a deified sacrificial pit used to summon the deities from the underworld. [39] This figure might have been regarded as a personified deity, but played no role outside of rituals. [34] Billie Jean Collis argues that the deification was only meant to reflect the supernatural properties inscribed to the structure. [24] |
Aduntarri Aduntera [40] | Syrian [40] | Aduntarri was regarded as a divine seer (lúḪAL). [19] The title indicates he was regarded as a male deity. [41] He formed a triad with Irpitiga and Zulki in rituals. [42] The suffix -tera is present in a number of theonyms presumed to originate in Syria, and on this basis it has been argued that he might have originally been a deity of a West Semitic speaking group from this area. [40] |
Alalu | Mesopotamian [30] | Alalu was regarded as the first “king in heaven” who was dethroned by Anu and had to flee to the “dark earth”. [33] Wilfred G. Lambert suggested that this episode might have been derived from a presently unknown Mesopotamian myth. [43] In some cases, Alalu appears in a sequence with Kumarbi, which might reflect the belief that they were regarded as father and son. [44] |
Amizzadu Amaza [45] | Mesopotamian [30] or Syrian [46] | According to Alfonso Archi, Amizadu's name ends in a Semitic feminine suffix, [45] though it has also been argued that it is masculine. [46] [33] The similarity to the name of a Babylonian king, Ammizaduga, is accidental. [37] She often appears alongside Alalu. [46] Under the name Amaza, she was also worshiped in Emar in association with him, possibly as an underworld deity. [45] It has been proposed that she was regarded as analogous to the Mesopotamian goddess Belili. [46] |
Antu | Mesopotamian [30] | Antu was in origin the spouse of the Mesopotamian god Anu. [47] In some cases in treaties a triad consisting of them both and Apantu appears. [27] |
Anu | Mesopotamian [30] | Anu was the Mesopotamian god of heaven. [47] In contrast with other members of the group, he was not believed to dwell in the underworld, and his connection to them relied entirely on his character as a primordial deity. [34] |
Apantu | Mesopotamian [12] | Apantu's character is not well known and she has been described as “colorless” by Alfonso Archi. [18] She formed a pair with Antu in rituals. [30] Gernot Wilhelm considers her to be a deity of Mesopotamian origin. [12] According to Archi her name was created “in assonance with Antu”, [18] and appears to end in a Semitic feminine suffix. [45] |
Eltara | Ugaritic [44] | While it has been suggested in early scholarship that Eltara is a corrupted form of Latarak, [37] today it is assumed it is a combination of the name of the Ugaritic god El and the element -tara. [44] Said suffix might be the same one present in the name of Aduntarri (Aduntera). [40] A myth in which Eltara apparently acts as the king of the gods is known. [48] He also appears in a ritual text, KUB 45.28, though he did not play a large role in the sphere of worship. [49] He is also absent from treaties. [44] |
Enlil | Mesopotamian [30] | Enlil was originally a Mesopotamian god regarded as the head of the pantheon. [47] While well attested in treaties, he only appears as one of the primeval deities in a ritual text once, alongside Apantu. [27] |
Irpitiga | Hurrian [50] | Irpitiga was a male deity [40] addressed as the “lord of judgment”. [30] While it has been argued that he was also known as the “lord of earth”, [50] [19] this might be a misunderstanding of a logographic writing of the former title. [42] |
Kumarbi | Hurrian [51] | Kumarbi was one of the main Hurrian deities. [52] In some treaties, he was counted among the primeval deities as one of the three old “kings in heaven”. [12] He takes Apantu's usual place in such cases. [18] |
Minki and Amunki | Mesopotamian [53] | Minki (Munki) and Amunki formed a pair. [30] It has been argued that they were both derived from the Mesopotamian pair Enki and Ninki, [37] [36] the first generation of ancestors of Enlil. [54] [lower-alpha 2] Wilfred G. Lambert noted that their names might be phonetic variants of Enki and Ninki otherwise not preserved in writing. [53] However, it remains unknown if Amunki and Minki were similarly a male-female pair, or instead two deities of the same gender. [46] |
Muntara and Mutmuntara | possibly West Semitic [29] | Muntara and Mutmuntara formed a pair, [30] though both of them are also attested separately from each other. [29] They appear only in rituals. [45] Their name might contain the same suffix as these of Adunterri, Eltara and Mutmuntara, and as such might have West Semitic origin. [29] One of the two might have been male and the other female according to Volkert Haas. [36] |
Namšara Napšara [12] | possibly Mesopotamian [56] | According to Alfonso Archi, the name Namšara might be a corrupt form of the Mesopotamian theonym Enmešarra, one of the ancestors of Enlil. [56] An earlier proposal was that the name is a corruption of Namtar. [37] |
Nara | possibly Mesopotamian [29] | Nara formed a pair with Namšara in rituals. [30] In Hittite treaties, they are the first of the pairs of primordial deities listed. [13] It has been suggested that this theonym was a derivative or corrupted form of Narru, an epithet of Enlil, but this remains uncertain. [29] In Malitta, Nara was worshiped in the form of a wooden statue of a bull. [29] |
Ninlil | Mesopotamian [30] | Ninlil, who formed a pair with Enlil, was a Mesopotamian goddess in origin. [30] She does not appear in ritual texts. [27] |
Taštara Taištara [30] | Taštara formed a pair with Eltara in rituals. [30] According to Volkert Haas, it is possible one of these two deities was male and the other female. [36] | |
Tuḫuši | Unknown [57] | Tuḫuši formed a triad with Minki and Amunki. [58] |
Zulki | Zulki was regarded as a divine seer, [30] specifically as a dream interpreter (MUNUSENSI). [19] The title indicates she was a female deity. [41] |
In addition to the deities listed above, less well attested Hurrian primeval deities include Alammu, Elluita, Napirra, Undurupa [59] and the pairs Ašša and Apašta [45] and Aunammudu and Iyandu. [30] Furthermore, in a single Hittite treaty a deity designated by the Sumerogram NIN.É.GAL appears among them. [60] Additionally, anonymous divine ancestors of multiple Hurrian deities, including Teshub, Ḫepat, Šauška, Šimige, Ningal and Lelluri, are mentioned in ritual texts from Kizzuwatna. [56] In two cases, those of Šauška and Šimige, all of the ancestors are stated to be of the same gender, respectively female and male. [61]
It is presumed that the worship of primeval deities was a part of the traditions of Hurrians living in Syria and Kizzuwatna, but it is not attested in Mitanni sources. [58] Alfonso Archi on this basis concluded they cannot be considered pan-Hurrian deities. [45] Ritual texts do not associate them with a specific cult center. [62]
Communication with the primeval deities required the preparation of special pits, typically located outdoors. [63] One example of such a structure has been identified during excavations of Urkesh. [64] It dates to 2300 BCE, measures five meters in diameter and might be seven meters deep, though between 1999 and 2004 the excavators only reached six meters deep into the ground. [65] Its purpose was initially uncertain, with an early proposal being to identify it as an elaborate cist burial, but it has eventually been established based on the presence of numerous faunal remains and other objects identified as offerings. [66] However, while later sources indicate that underworld deities received birds as offerings, the Urkesh pit instead contains the remains of piglets, puppies, sheep, goats and donkeys. [67] The first two of these animals were not typical sacrifices, and based on evidence from later rituals it is assumed they were used as agents of purification. [68]
Hurrian primeval deities were incorporated into Hittite religion. [30] Most likely they were received in the fourteenth century BCE from northern Syria or Kizzuwatna. [58] Hittites were aware of the tradition of making offerings to them in pits, and possible examples of such structures have been identified during excavations in Hattusa. [38] Multiple terms were used to refer to the offering pits in Hittite texts, including ḫateššar, pateššar, wappu, āpi and the Sumerogram ARÀḪ (“storage pit”). [24] As a group, the primeval deities received offerings in rituals such as CTH 446, 447 and 449. [3] However, they had no established cult, and ceremonies related to them were only carried out in reaction to specific events. [24] One example is a ritual meant to help purify a house from blood, which had to last two days and involved the preparation of statues of the primeval deities from clay from a riverbank sprinkled with oil and honey and the offering of birds to them. [69] The text KBo 23.7 describes an invocation of the group performed by a SANGA priest on Mount Irrāna, during which a “Song of the Invocation of the Primeval Deities” was sung. [70]
The primeval deities also appear as divine witnesses in treaties. [30] The oldest example, which does not yet use their individual names, is CTH 139, dated to the reign of Arnuwanda I, where they are listed separately from “the gods of the heaven and the gods of the earth”, a grouping which according to earlier Hattian-Hittite tradition already included underworld deities of local origin. [71] The received Hurrian idea of underworld deities differed from the earlier Anatolian one, which did not present them as an earlier generation. [72] When their individual names are listed in Hittite treaties, twelve of them are enumerated, with the exception of the treaty with Alaksandu, which lists only nine, [18] namely Nara, Napšara, Amunki, Tuḫuši, Ammezzadu, Alalu, Kumarbi, Enlil and Ninlil. [73]
It is assumed that a group of twelve gods from the Yazılıkaya sanctuary reliefs dressed in pointy caps and armed with curved swords can be interpreted as a depiction of the Hurrian primeval deities. [19]
The primeval deities appear in multiple myths belonging to the so-called Kumarbi Cycle. [33] In the Song of Emergence, also known as Song of Kumarbi or Kingship in Heaven, [74] in the proem the narrator invites them to listen to the tale:
[I sing of Kumarbi, Father of the Gods.] The Primeval Deities, who [are in the Dark Earth(?)] – let [those] important [Primeval] Deities listen! Let Nara, [Napšara, Minki], and Ammunki listen! Let Ammezzadu [and ...], father and mother of [...], listen! Let [Enlil and Apandu], father and mother of Išḫara, listen! [lower-alpha 3] Let Enlil [and Ninlil], who are weighty and eternal deities, [contented(?)] and quiet, listen! [76]
It is commonly assumed that the invocation of this group reflected their character as members of an earlier generation of gods who witnessed the described events firsthand. [33] According to Alfonso Archi, the list of primeval deities used in Hittite treaties shows overlap with this enumeration, and might be derived from it. [18] Amir Gilan considers it to be a literary device, and concludes that it cannot be assumed that it corresponds to invoking them in a ritual setting. [77]
In the Song of LAMMA, the primeval deities are mentioned during an argument between the eponymous figure and Kubaba which revolves around the former's unwillingness to honor them. [78] In a later section, Ea decides to dispose of LAMMA, who was temporarily made the king of the gods, and announces his plan to Nara, addressing him as a brother and ordering him to gather various animals for an unknown purpose. [79] According to Volkert Haas’ interpretation, in the Song of Ḫedammu the primeval deities are addressed alongside Kumarbi by Ea when he berates him in the divine assembly due to the danger his plots pose to mankind. [80] In the Song of Ullikummi , Ea requests the primeval deities to bring him a tool which long ago was used to separate haven from earth, which he subsequently uses to separate Ullikummi from the shoulder of Upelluri. [81]
In a fragment of a myth (KUB 33, 105: 10), Teshub states that he received wisdom from Nara. [82] According to Amir Gilan, a poorly preserved passage in the Song of Emergence might also allude to this event. [33]
The banishment of the primeval deities to the underworld is alluded to in the myth Ea and the Beast. [83] [77] This composition, which might be a part of the Kumarbi Cycle, describes a long prophetic speech given by suppalanza, a hitherto unidentified animal, to Ea, which seemingly describes the deeds of Teshub, including the banishment of unspecified opponents to the underworld, where they will be kept in place with strings. [84] A further fragmentary myth sometimes classified as a part of the same cycle, KBo 22.87, describes a period during which one of the primeval deities, Eltara, was the king of the gods. [85] Apparently it involves the other primordial deities being lifted up from the underworld to reside with him in heaven. [7]
In an episode from the Song of Release the interpretation of which remains a matter of debate, the primordial deities sit with Teshub during a feast held for him in the underworld by Allani. [86] Gernot Wilhelm suggests that the scene might be meant to mirror rituals for deceased kings who were believed to feast in the underworld with their ancestors. [87]
A possible reference to the primeval deities occurs in the so-called ritual of Maštigga (CTH 404), which alludes to an eschatological event when “the former kings” (karuilieš LUGALmeš), who Gary Beckman identifies as the same group rather than as deceased mortal rulers, “should return and examine the land and (its) custom(s)”. [14]
Karel van der Toorn compares the Hurrian primeval deities, especially Alalu, with the Ugaritic god Ilib, who according to him developed as a similar figure meant to represent a divine ancestor who was believed to have reigned over the gods in the distant past. [88] Alfonso Archi notes that the Hurrians living in Ugarit in turn developed the figure of eni attanni , “god father”, a “generic ancestor of the gods” meant to mirror Ilib. [89]
The confinement of the Hurrian primeval deities in the underworld has been compared to the fate of Titans in later Greek myths. [3] It has been suggested this group was based on the Hurrian deities. [90] The contact zone in which Greeks would be introduced to Hurro-Hittite tradition might have been Cilicia, Cyprus or the Levant, but it is not certain if they were received directly from the Hittites or another culture. [91] However, it has been noted differences between the two groups of deities also exist. [92] Most notably, Titans rarely, if ever, appear in rituals. [93]
Teshub was the Hurrian weather god, as well as the head of the Hurrian pantheon. The etymology of his name is uncertain, though it is agreed it can be classified as linguistically Hurrian. Both phonetic and logographic writings are attested. As a deity associated with the weather, Teshub could be portrayed both as destructive and protective. Individual weather phenomena, including winds, lightning, thunder and rain, could be described as his weapons. He was also believed to enable the growth of vegetation and create rivers and springs. His high position in Hurrian religion reflected the widespread importance of weather gods in northern Mesopotamia and nearby areas, where in contrast with the south agriculture relied primarily on rainfall rather than irrigation. It was believed that his authority extended to both mortal and other gods, both on earth and in heaven. However, the sea and the underworld were not under his control. Depictions of Teshub are rare, though it is agreed he was typically portrayed as an armed, bearded figure, sometimes holding a bundle of lightning. One such example is known from Yazılıkaya. In some cases, he was depicted driving in a chariot drawn by two sacred bulls.
Ḫepat was a goddess associated with Aleppo, originally worshiped in the north of modern Syria in the third millennium BCE. Her name is often presumed to be either a feminine nisba referring to her connection to this city, or alternatively a derivative of the root ḫbb, "to love". Her best attested role is that of the spouse of various weather gods. She was already associated with Adad in Ebla and Aleppo in the third millennium BCE, and in later times they are attested as a couple in cities such as Alalakh and Emar. In Hurrian religion she instead came to be linked with Teshub, which in the first millennium BCE led to the development of a tradition in which she was the spouse of his Luwian counterpart Tarḫunz. Associations between her and numerous other deities are described in Hurrian ritual texts, where she heads her own kaluti, a type of offering lists dedicated to the circle of a specific deity. She commonly appears in them alongside her children, Šarruma, Allanzu and Kunzišalli. Her divine attendant was the goddess Takitu. In Hittite sources, she could sometimes be recognized as the counterpart of the Sun goddess of Arinna, though their respective roles were distinct and most likely this theological conception only had limited recognition. In Ugarit the local goddess Pidray could be considered analogous to her instead.
Kumarbi, also known as Kumurwe, Kumarwi and Kumarma, was a Hurrian god. He held a senior position in the Hurrian pantheon, and was described as the "father of gods". He was portrayed as an old, deposed king of the gods, though this most likely did not reflect factual loss of the position of the head of the pantheon in Hurrian religion, but only a mythological narrative. It is often assumed that he was an agricultural deity, though this view is not universally accepted and the evidence is limited. He was also associated with prosperity. It was believed that he resided in the underworld.
Kušuḫ, also known under the name Umbu, was the god of the moon in Hurrian pantheon. He is attested in cuneiform texts from many sites, from Hattusa in modern Turkey, through Ugarit, Alalakh, Mari and other locations in Syria, to Nuzi, located near modern Kirkuk in Iraq, but known sources do not indicate that he was associated with a single city. His name might be derived from the toponym Kuzina, possibly the Hurrian name of Harran, a city in Upper Mesopotamia, but both this etymology and identification of this sparsely attested place name remain uncertain. He was a popular, commonly worshiped god, and many theophoric names invoking him are known. In addition to serving as a divine representation of the moon, he was also associated with oaths, oracles and pregnancy. Some aspects of his character were likely influenced by his Mesopotamian counterpart Sin, while he in turn was an influence on the Ugaritic god Yarikh and Luwian Arma.
Nikkal or Nikkal-wa-Ib was a goddess worshiped in various areas of the ancient Near East west of Mesopotamia. She was derived from the Mesopotamian goddess Ningal, and like her forerunner was regarded as the spouse of a moon god, whose precise identity varied between locations. While well attested in Hurrian and Hittite sources, as well as in Ugarit, she is largely absent from documents from the western part of ancient Syria.
Šauška (Shaushka), also called Šauša or Šawuška, was the highest ranked goddess in the Hurrian pantheon. She was associated with love and war, as well as with incantations and by extension with healing. While she was usually referred to as a goddess and with feminine titles, such as allai, references to masculine Šauška are also known. The Hurrians associated her with Nineveh, but she was also worshiped in many other centers associated with this culture, from Anatolian cities in Kizzuwatna, through Alalakh and Ugarit in Syria, to Nuzi and Ulamme in northeastern Mesopotamia. She was also worshiped in southern Mesopotamia, where she was introduced alongside a number of other foreign deities in the Ur III period. In this area, she came to be associated with Ishtar. At a later point in time, growing Hurrian influence on Hittite culture resulted in the adoption of Šauška into the Hittite state pantheon.
Allani, also known under the Akkadian name Allatu, was the Hurrian goddess of the underworld. She was also associated with the determination of fate. She was closely linked with Ishara, and they could be invoked or receive offerings together. She also developed connection with other underworld deities from neighboring cultures, such as Mesopotamian Ereshkigal, Anatolian Sun goddess of the Earth and Lelwani, and possibly Ugaritic Arsay. It is presumed she was chiefly worshiped in western areas inhabited by the Hurrians, though the location of her main cult center is uncertain. She is attested in texts from sites such as Tigunani, Tuttul and Ugarit. She was also incorporated into the Mesopotamian pantheon, and was venerated in Ur, Nippur and Sippar. Hittite sources mentioning her are known too.
Alalu or Alala was a primordial figure in Mesopotamian and Hurrian mythology. He is also known from documents from Emar, where he was known as Alal. While his role was not identical in these three contexts, it is agreed that all three versions share the same origin. Hurrian Alalu, who plays the role of the oldest king of gods in the Kumarbi Cycle, is the best known, and is commonly discussed in scholarship focused on comparative mythology but it is agreed Mesopotamian Alala represents the oldest tradition regarding this being. However, the precise etymology of his name is unknown, and likely neither Sumerian nor Semitic. Both Hurrian and Mesopotamian sources attest an association between him and Anu, but its nature varies between cultures.
The Hurrian religion was the polytheistic religion of the Hurrians, a Bronze Age people of the Near East who chiefly inhabited the north of the Fertile Crescent. While the oldest evidence goes back to the third millennium BCE, it is best attested in cuneiform sources from the second millennium BCE written not only in the Hurrian language, but also Akkadian, Hittite and Ugaritic. It was shaped by the contacts between Hurrians and various cultures they coexisted with. As a result, the Hurrian pantheon included both natively Hurrian deities and those of foreign origin, adopted from Mesopotamian, Syrian, Anatolian and Elamite beliefs. The culture of the Hurrians was not entirely homogeneous, and different local religious traditions are documented in sources from Hurrian kingdoms such as Arrapha, Kizzuwatna and Mitanni, as well as from cities with sizeable Hurrian populations, such as Ugarit and Alalakh.
Aštabi, also known as Aštabil, was a god worshiped in the third millennium BCE in Ebla, later incorporated into Hurrian beliefs in locations such as Alalakh and Ugarit and as a result also into the religion of the Hittite Empire.
Šimige was the Hurrian sun god. Known sources do not associate him with any specific location, but he is attested in documents from various settlements inhabited by the Hurrians, from Kizzuwatnean cities in modern Turkey, through Ugarit, Alalakh and Mari in Syria, to Nuzi, in antiquity a part of the kingdom of Arrapha in northeastern Iraq. His character was to a large degree based on his Mesopotamian counterpart Shamash, though they were not identical. Šimige was in turn an influence on the Hittite Sun god of Heaven and Luwian Tiwaz.
Ninatta and Kulitta were a dyad of Hurrian goddesses regarded as the handmaidens of Šauška. They were primarily considered divine musicians, though they also had a warlike aspect. They are attested in western Hurrian sources from Ugarit and Hattusa. They were also incorporated into the Hittite and Mesopotamian pantheons.
Nupatik, in early sources known as Lubadag, was a Hurrian god of uncertain character. He is attested in the earliest inscriptions from Urkesh, as well as in texts from other Hurrian settlements and Ugarit. He was also incorporated into Hittite religion. A similarly named deity continued to be venerated in Arbela as late as in the Neo-Assyrian period.
Kiaše, also spelled Kiaže or Kiyaši was a Hurrian deity representing the sea. Sometimes in modern scholarship, he is simply referred to as "the Sea" or "the Sea God."
Nabarbi or Nawarni was a Hurrian goddess possibly associated with pastures. She was one of the major deities in Hurrian religion, and was chiefly worshiped in the proximity of the river Khabur, especially in Taite. It has been proposed that she was associated with the goddess Belet Nagar, linked to the Upper Mesopotamian city of Nagar. In addition to being venerated in Hurrian religion, she was also incorporated into the beliefs of the Hittites and into the local pantheon of Emar. She also continued to be worshiped in Taite in the Neo-Assyrian period, as attested in a text from the reign of Ashurbanipal, where she is one of the deities invoked to bless the king.
Takitu, Takiti or Daqitu was a Hurrian goddess who served as the sukkal of Ḫepat. She appears alongside her mistress in a number of Hurrian myths, in which she is portrayed as her closest confidante. Her name is usually assumed to have its origin in a Semitic language, though a possible Hurrian etymology has also been proposed. She was worshiped in Hattusa, Lawazantiya and Ugarit.
Tašmišu (Tashmishu) was a Hurrian god. He was regarded as a brother of Teshub, and it is assumed he had a warlike character.
Ḫešui, also known as Ḫišue, was a Hurrian war god. He was also incorporated into the Hittite pantheon. He is sparsely attested in known sources, and his origin and the meaning of his name remain unknown.
Šeri and Ḫurri were a pair of theriomorphic Hurrian gods who almost always appear together in known sources. They were believed to pull the chariot of Teššub, the Hurrian weather god. Šeri additionally could function as a deity mediating between petitioners and his master, but no individual role was ever assigned to Ḫurri. In addition to appearing in Hurrian offering lists and theophoric names, for example from Nuzi, Šeri and Ḫurri are also attested in Hittite and Mesopotamian sources. While the Hittites incorporated them into their pantheon alongside Teššub and other deities from his circle, in Mesopotamia they instead came to be associated with Adad.