Hypobranchial gland

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The hypobranchial gland is a glandular structure which is part of the anatomy of many mollusks, including several different families of gastropods, and also many protobranch bivalves. [1] This gland produces mucus as well as biologically active compounds. The cephalopod ink sac is a modified hypobranchial gland. [2]

Contents

Anatomy and function

Gastropods

The hypobranchial gland is found in many sea snails, including those in the families Haliotidae, Buccinidae, Mitridae and Costellariidae. It usually presents itself as a thickening of the tissue located in the roof of the animal's mantle cavity. [3] This is in association with parts of the aquatic mollusk anatomy that perform sediment consolidation in these organisms. [4] However, this gland is absent in all terrestrial gastropods except the Neritacea. [4] Its morphology, however, is variable between different groups of snails.

Glands with similar functions are present in the Nuculidae, Solenomyidae, Monia, Patellacea, and Loritcata. [5]

In the Haliotidae, this gland has two lobes in the roof of the mantle cavity with the left larger than the right. It is deeply ridges and secretes mucus. [5] The purpose of the mucus is to trap, collect, and excrete sediment that collects as water flows over the gills of these organisms. [5]  

Aculifera

In the aculifera the hypobranchial glands are referred to as "mucus tracts" and occupy a posterior position in the body.

Bacterial Community

In a study done on individuals from the species Dicathais orbita, a member of the Muricidae family, it was found that the bacterial community of the hypobranchial gland was highly specialized; The community was dominated by two genera: Mycoplasma and Vibrio, which are known to contain biosynthetic species. [6] These bacterial communities were compared to the foot of the individuals which had a larger variety of bacterial inhabitants. [6]

Toxins

Some extracts from the hypobranchial gland have shown some toxic effects on human granulosa cells, cells inside the ovaries. These extracts can affect the hormone production of the reproductive system. As for all toxins, the effect is dependent on the dose and length of exposure to these extracts. [7]

Human use

Tyrian Purple  

There have been studies on some species within the family Muricidae, because in those species this gland secretes the precursor to the historically important natural dye, Tyrian purple.This dye has potential origins in history as early as 2000 BC in some areas of Europe and Asia. Due to the expensive process of dying fabrics with the hypobranchial glands of mollusks, fabrics dyed Tyrian purple were considered a symbol of wealth and royalty throughout much of history. It is synthesized from the dye precursor 6-6 dibromoindigo. [8]  

Medical Applications

There are some potential medical applications for the hypobranchial glands of mollusks ranging from anti-inflammatories, to anti-bacterials, to cancer. [9] Some of these uses were found by analyzing traditional medicine and therapeutic techniques from a variety of different cultures. In Ancient Greece, extracts from this gland were used as laxatives and diuretics with the potential for some side effects including increases in sweat and saliva productions. [9]

Anti-bacterial Uses  

  • MeOH (Methanol) inhibited marine biofilm growth [9]
  • DCM (Dichloromethane) inhibited marine biofilm growth [9]  
  • (CH₃)₂CO (Acetone) inhibited marine biofilm growth [9]

Other extracts from the hemolymph of these mollusks have been shown to inhibit the growth of human pathogens. [9]  

Anti-inflammatory uses  

  • In lab cell lines and various animal models, extracts from the hypobranchial gland have shown a variety of muscle relaxing properties including the ability to act as a neuromuscular block, an anticonvulsant, a pain killer, and a sedative. [9]  

Cancer Treatments  

  • Chloroform extracts can inhibit the growth of lymphoma (cancer of the lung), reproductive system cancers, and colon cancer. [9]  
  • A pigment in Tyrian purple, 6-dibromoindirubin, may slow the spread of a variety of cancers including lung, stomach, colon, abdominal, and leukaemia cancers. [9]
  • Extracts from the glands of Hexaplex trunculus showed possible adhesion inhibition of cervical and glioblastoma cells, which can decrease the frequency of tumor formation. [10]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tyrian purple</span> Natural dye extracted from Murex sea snails

Tyrian purple, also known as, royal purple, imperial purple, or imperial dye, is a reddish-purple natural dye. The name Tyrian refers to Tyre, Lebanon. It is secreted by several species of predatory sea snails in the family Muricidae, rock snails originally known by the name 'Murex'. In ancient times, extracting this dye involved tens of thousands of snails and substantial labor, and as a result, the dye was highly valued. The colored compound is 6,6′-dibromoindigo.

<i>Murex</i> Genus of gastropods

Murex is a genus of medium to large sized predatory tropical sea snails. These are carnivorous marine gastropod molluscs in the family Muricidae, commonly called "murexes" or "rock snails".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mucus</span> Secretion produced by mucous membranes

Mucus is a slippery aqueous secretion produced by, and covering, mucous membranes. It is typically produced from cells found in mucous glands, although it may also originate from mixed glands, which contain both serous and mucous cells. It is a viscous colloid containing inorganic salts, antimicrobial enzymes, immunoglobulins, and glycoproteins such as lactoferrin and mucins, which are produced by goblet cells in the mucous membranes and submucosal glands. Mucus serves to protect epithelial cells in the linings of the respiratory, digestive, and urogenital systems, and structures in the visual and auditory systems from pathogenic fungi, bacteria and viruses. Most of the mucus in the body is produced in the gastrointestinal tract.

<i>Hexaplex trunculus</i> Species of gastropod

Hexaplex trunculus is a medium-sized sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Muricidae, the murex shells or rock snails. It is included in the subgenus Trunculariopsis.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Muricidae</span> Family of molluscs

Muricidae is a large and varied taxonomic family of small to large predatory sea snails, marine gastropod mollusks, commonly known as murex snails or rock snails. With over 1,700 living species, the Muricidae represent almost 10% of the Neogastropoda. Additionally, 1,200 fossil species have been recognized. Numerous subfamilies are recognized, although experts disagree about the subfamily divisions and the definitions of the genera. Many muricids have unusual shells which are considered attractive by shell collectors and by interior designers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mucin</span> Glycoprotein

Mucins are a family of high molecular weight, heavily glycosylated proteins (glycoconjugates) produced by epithelial tissues in most animals. Mucins' key characteristic is their ability to form gels; therefore they are a key component in most gel-like secretions, serving functions from lubrication to cell signalling to forming chemical barriers. They often take an inhibitory role. Some mucins are associated with controlling mineralization, including nacre formation in mollusks, calcification in echinoderms and bone formation in vertebrates. They bind to pathogens as part of the immune system. Overexpression of the mucin proteins, especially MUC1, is associated with many types of cancer.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">6,6′-Dibromoindigo</span> Chemical compound

6,6'-Dibromoindigo is an organic compound with the formula (BrC6H3C(O)CNH)2. A deep purple solid, the compound is also known as Tyrian purple, a dye of historic significance. Presently, it is only a curiosity, although the related derivative indigo is of industrial significance. The molecule consists of a pair of monobrominated indole rings linked by a carbon-carbon double bond. It is produced by molluscs of the Muricidae species.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ink sac</span> Organ in cephalopods used to squirt ink in defense

An ink sac is an anatomical feature that is found in many cephalopod mollusks used to produce the defensive cephalopod ink. With the exception of nocturnal and very deep water cephalopods, all Coleoidea which dwell in light conditions have an ink sac, which can be used to expel a cloud of dark ink in order to confuse predators.

<i>Bolinus brandaris</i> Species of gastropod

Bolinus brandaris, and commonly known as the purple dye murex or the spiny dye-murex, is a species of medium-sized predatory sea snail, an edible marine gastropod mollusk in the family Muricidae, the murex snails or the rock snails.

<i>Dicathais</i> Genus of gastropods

Dicathais is a genus of predatory sea snails, marine gastropod molluscs in the family Muricidae, the rock snails. This genus is monotypic; the only species in it is Dicathais orbita, common name the white rock shell or cart-rut shell, found round the coasts of Australia and New Zealand.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Extracellular polymeric substance</span> Gluey polymers secreted by microorganisms to form biofilms

Extracellular polymeric substances (EPSs) are natural polymers of high molecular weight secreted by microorganisms into their environment. EPSs establish the functional and structural integrity of biofilms, and are considered the fundamental component that determines the physicochemical properties of a biofilm. EPS in the matrix of biofilms provides compositional support and protection of microbial communities from the harsh environments. Components of EPS can be of different classes of polysaccharides, lipids, nucleic acids, proteins, lipopolysaccharides, and minerals.

<i>Concholepas concholepas</i> Species of gastropod

Concholepas concholepas, the Chilean abalone or Peruvian tolina, is a species of large edible sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk. Despite the superficial resemblance, C. concholepas is not a true abalone, but a member of the family Muricidae, also known as murex snails or rock snails. This species is native to the coasts of Chile and Peru, where it is called loco, pata de burro, tolina, or chanque.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mollusca</span> Phylum of invertebrate animals

Mollusca is the second-largest phylum of invertebrate animals, after the Arthropoda; members are known as molluscs or mollusks. Around 76,000 extant species of molluscs are recognized. The number of fossil species is estimated between 60,000 and 100,000 additional species. The proportion of undescribed species is very high. Many taxa remain poorly studied.

Roberto Kolter is Professor of Microbiology, Emeritus at Harvard Medical School, an author, and past president of the American Society for Microbiology. Kolter has been a professor at Harvard Medical School since 1983 and was Co-director of Harvard's Microbial Sciences Initiative from 2003-2018. During the 35-year term of the Kolter laboratory from 1983 to 2018, more than 130 graduate student and postdoctoral trainees explored an eclectic mix of topics gravitating around the study of microbes. Kolter is a fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science and of the American Academy of Microbiology.

<i>Bolinus cornutus</i> Species of gastropod

Bolinus cornutus, or horned murex, is a predatory species of sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Muricidae, the murex or rock snails. This species is common along the west coast of Africa, where it prefers moderately shallow waters. The shell of the snail is distinctively large, spiny, and club-shaped, usually pale brown or tan in colour, with an elongated and straight siphonal canal.

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Snail slime (mucopolysaccharide) is a kind of mucus produced by snails, which are gastropod mollusks. Land snails and slugs both produce mucus, as does every other kind of gastropod, from marine, freshwater, and terrestrial habitats. The reproductive system of gastropods also produces mucus internally from special glands.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bromide peroxidase</span> Family of enzymes

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Marine microbial symbiosis</span>

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References

  1. ↑ Fretter & Graham, 1962, p. 88
  2. ↑ Nair, J.R., D. Pillai, S.M. Joseph, P. Gomathi, P.V. Senan & P.M. Sherief (2011). "Cephalopod research and bioactive substances" (PDF).Indian Journal of Geo-Marine Sciences40(1): 13–27.
  3. ↑ Pontarotti, 2010, p.260
  4. 1 2 Yonge, C. M. (1947). "The Pallial Organs in the Aspidobranch Gastropoda and their Evolution throughout the Mollusca". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences. 232 (591): 443–518. Bibcode:1947RSPTB.232..443Y. doi: 10.1098/rstb.1947.0003 . ISSN   0080-4622. JSTOR   92345. PMID   20296045. S2CID   44609586.
  5. 1 2 3 Yonge, C. M. (1947). "The Pallial Organs in the Aspidobranch Gastropoda and their Evolution throughout the Mollusca". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences. 232 (591): 443–518. Bibcode:1947RSPTB.232..443Y. doi: 10.1098/rstb.1947.0003 . ISSN   0080-4622. JSTOR   92345. PMID   20296045. S2CID   44609586.
  6. 1 2 Ngangbam, Ajit Kumar; Baten, Abdul; Waters, Daniel L. E.; Whalan, Steve; Benkendorff, Kirsten (2015-10-21). Balcazar, Jose Luis (ed.). "Characterization of Bacterial Communities Associated with the Tyrian Purple Producing Gland in a Marine Gastropod". PLOS ONE. 10 (10): e0140725. Bibcode:2015PLoSO..1040725N. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0140725 . ISSN   1932-6203. PMC   4619447 . PMID   26488885.
  7. ↑ Benkendorff, Kirsten; Rudd, David; Nongmaithem, Bijayalakshmi; Liu, Lei; Young, Fiona; Edwards, Vicki; Avila, Cathy; Abbott, Catherine (2015-08-18). "Are the Traditional Medical Uses of Muricidae Molluscs Substantiated by Their Pharmacological Properties and Bioactive Compounds?". Marine Drugs. 13 (8): 5237–5275. doi: 10.3390/md13085237 . ISSN   1660-3397. PMC   4557022 . PMID   26295242.
  8. ↑ Cooksey, Chris (2013). "Tyrian Purple: The First Four Thousand Years". Science Progress. 96 (2): 171–186. doi:10.3184/003685013X13680345111425. ISSN   0036-8504. PMC   10365538 . PMID   23901634. S2CID   1250423.
  9. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Benkendorff, Kirsten; Rudd, David; Nongmaithem, Bijayalakshmi; Liu, Lei; Young, Fiona; Edwards, Vicki; Avila, Cathy; Abbott, Catherine (2015-08-18). "Are the Traditional Medical Uses of Muricidae Molluscs Substantiated by Their Pharmacological Properties and Bioactive Compounds?". Marine Drugs. 13 (8): 5237–5275. doi: 10.3390/md13085237 . ISSN   1660-3397. PMC   4557022 . PMID   26295242.
  10. ↑ Ben Mabrouk, Hazem; Nejia, Sayari; Maram, Morjen; Naziha, Marrakchi; Soufia, Chabchoub-Ellouze (2017-10-03). "A New Protein Extract Inhibitor from Hypobranchial Purple Gland of Hexaplex trunculus, a Mediterranean Mollusk, Impairs the Motility of Human Glioblastoma U87 and the HeLa Cell Line of Cervical Carcinoma Cells". Nutrition and Cancer. 69 (7): 1028–1035. doi:10.1080/01635581.2017.1359315. ISSN   0163-5581. PMID   29083237. S2CID   41072897.

Literature cited

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