Insect indicators of abuse or neglect

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Entomological evidence is legal evidence in the form of insects or related artifacts and is a field of study in forensic entomology. Such evidence is used particularly in medicolegal and medicocriminal applications due to the consistency of insects and arthropods in detecting decomposition quickly. [1] Insect evidence is customarily used to determine post-mortem interval (PMI) but can also be used as evidence of neglect or abuse. It can indicate how long a person was abused/neglected as well as provide important insights into the amount of bodily care given to the neglected or abused person.

Contents

Abuse is defined as the use or treatment of something (a person, item, substance, concept, or vocabulary) that is deemed harmful. [2] Neglect is defined as being remiss in the care or treatment of something. [3] Abuse and neglect which results in death or serious physical or emotional harm to a child, an elderly or infirm person, or an animal can be proven by using insect evidence.

Indicators of abuse and neglect

Insects are valuable as forensic indicators in cases of abuse and neglect. Some insects, such as the Green Bottle Fly, ( Lucilia sericata (Meigen)), are drawn to odors, such as ammonia, resulting from urine or fecal contamination. Adult green bottle flies tend to be attracted to an incontinent individual who lacks voluntary control of excretory functions. Such examples include a baby who has not had its diapers changed often or an incontinent elderly person who has not been helped in maintaining routine bodily hygiene. [4] Flies lay their eggs in and around clothing and skin which, if left undiscovered, will hatch into maggots (larvae) which begin feeding upon flesh, open wounds, ulcers, and any natural bodily entry point. Over time, the flesh will be eaten away, and the region may be further infected by bacteria or invaded by other insects. This is known as myiasis.

Techniques for collection of evidence

There are two areas that should be examined for insect evidence: the victim itself and then the eggs, instar larvae (1st, 2nd, or 3rd) or maggots which may be found in and around the wound. Maggots should be very carefully removed, without damaging them. Breaking a maggot within the victim releases large amounts of foreign protein, which can result in shock, anaphylaxis, and even death. [5] [6] Maggots, therefore, should only be removed manually and not killed with a chemical treatment, as the death of maggots in the wound can also cause anaphylaxis. If only a few maggots are present, they can be removed by hand. Special techniques in removal include flushing the area with water to remove the maggots or using a delicate brush to retrieve young instars. For the health of the victim, all maggots should be removed, if possible. Although the maggots are often those that feed only on dead tissue and are probably not harming the human or animal, many species will feed on living tissue and cause damage. Insect species cannot be determined until it has been examined under a microscope and properly identified for further investigation.

Application of entomological evidence

Forensic entomologists utilize collected insect evidence to determine post mortem interval (PMI), which is presented when proceeding in criminal investigations as it gives insight into the circumstances of a crime. In cases of death, PMI can be employed to link suspects to the crime scene as well as to identify that the corpse was relocated from the original place of death. Other applications include using entomological evidence to determine the cause of death, whether that be the result of abuse/neglect or something else. For example, maggots - the larvae of blow flies - can provide scientists information regarding the amount of time someone or something had been neglected and where the site of traumatic injury is since blow flies are known to be attracted to openings in the body. [7] [8]

Types of abuse and neglect

The three main categories of abuse/neglect seen in forensic entomology are as follows:

Child abuse or neglect

The United States Federal Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act (CAPTA), as amended by The Keeping Children and Families Safe Act of 2003, defines child abuse and neglect as, at minimum: any recent act or failure to act on the part of a parent or caretaker, which results in death, serious physical or emotional harm, sexual abuse or exploitation; or an act or failure to act which presents an imminent risk of serious harm. A child is defined as a person under the age of eighteen. Within the parameters of CAPTA, each state is responsible for individually defining child abuse, neglect, and dependence and outline the care expected of parents and caregivers. [9] In abuse cases, the most abused children are male aged from several months to 10 to 11 years old. The typical abusers are parents, live-in friends, guardians, or babysitters, and only rarely by a sibling or other child. [10]

The recognition of abuse is not always beyond doubt. Some usual symptoms of child abuse/neglect include malnutrition, bruises or abrasions, healing fractures, and repetitive or cumulative injuries upon examination of skin, soft tissues, and bones. [10] In proven child and abuse cases, as determined by the aforementioned constraints, forensic entomology can be utilized in estimating the time since the abuse last occurred, and in fatal cases, the post-mortem interval (PMI). Furthermore, blowfly larvae and pupae can produce evidence that may determine the length of neglect.

Case Study: The child of an incarcerated father and heroin-addicted prostitute mother, was found on July 10, 2000, in the home of a 20-year-old woman in Germany. Social workers had visited the house at the urging of neighbors, but there was never evidence found that neglect was occurring. An autopsy showed no signs of previous fractures, illness or drugs, but the child was malnourished. Specimens of Muscina stabulans (false stable fly) and Fannia canicularis (lesser house fly) were recovered from the genital area of the corpse. These particular flies are attracted to urine and/or feces much more than corpses. With the aid of this evidence and the third fly species recovered from the body, Calliphora vomitoria (bluebottle fly), the forensic entomologists could not only estimate the time of death but prove that the child would have lived if proper legal action had been pursued against the negligent caregiver. The mother received a five-year prison sentence, and two social workers were charged with duty of care violation. [11]

Case Study: A two-year-old male child showing signs of malnourishment and suffering severe enteric pain and bleeding was admitted to a hospital in Ireland. Investigative surgical procedures revealed tissue lacerations. Spicules from the tissue samples and a partial larva were identified as the cause. Larvae of Dermestes lardarius (larder beetles) were also found in large numbers in boxes of biscuits in the kitchen at the child's home. Neglect was demonstrated.

Case Study: A four-year-old child with a high fever and covered with several hundred Dermanyssus gallinae (red mite) and their bites was abandoned at a hospital in Ireland. Investigators traced the child to a caravan occupied by "travelers" parked near a hen house where the birds were heavily infested with the mite. Abandonment and neglect (of both the child and birds) were proven. Eradicating the mites from the hospital proved more difficult.

Elder abuse or neglect

Elderly abuse is the act of using physical force against an elderly person that causes them physical harm and elderly neglect is the act of not providing for their basic needs. In typical elderly abuse cases, victims are generally older widowed women living on fixed incomes. The typical abuser is usually a family member such as a spouse or child, but non-relatives such as nursing home attendants can play a part. Most instances of abuse and neglect go unreported because the elderly person is too afraid to speak up. [12]

The usual symptoms of elderly abuse are anything that would be visible such as broken bones, bed sores, cuts, bruises, etc. The symptoms of neglect are harder to put a finger on because they are much less noticeable. Signs are lack of food and water, not bathing regularly, wearing the same clothes repetitively, weight loss, withdrawal from social contact, depression, and anxiety. Forensic entomologists can use insects to determine the post-mortem interval and whether or not the person was neglected. There are several cases where neglect was found to be a major factor in the person’s death. [12] [13]

Case Study 1: An elderly woman was found dead in October 2002 in her apartment in Cologne, Germany. The bathroom was very dirty with the bathtub full of water and clothing. Larvae were found on the body but more importantly, dead adults of Muscina stabulans (false stable fly) were found on the floor and on a windowsill. No blowflies could be found but larval tracks could be seen around the body. The post-mortem interval was estimated to be about three weeks. This was strong evidence for neglect because the caregiver was supposed to check on the woman every week. [14]

Case Study 2: An elderly woman was found dead in September 2002 in her apartment in Germany. Her foot, which she had wrapped in a plastic bag, was infected with Lucilia sericata (green bottle fly) larvae. The woman did not clean her toilet and had placed clothing in it, which encouraged flies. The post mortem interval was estimated to be about two days. The maggots were estimated to be about 4 days old. It was found that the maggots had been feeding on her foot for a week while she was still alive. [14]

Case Study 3: An elderly woman was found dead in March 2002 in her apartment in Germany. Several insects were found on the body: larval Fannia canicularis (lesser house fly), larval Muscina stabulans (false stable fly), and adult Dermestes lardarius (larder beetle). Fannia are drawn to feces and urine, and their presence is strong evidence of neglect. The woman probably had not changed clothes or bathed in some time. She had developed pressure spots where her head had been resting on her chest for long periods of time. If she had been taken care of, the caregiver would have noticed these wounds. [14]

Animal abuse or neglect

According to the Humane Society, intentional animal cruelty, or animal abuse, is knowingly depriving an animal of food, water, shelter, socialization, or veterinary care or maliciously torturing, maiming, mutilating, or killing an animal.

Myiasis is the leading entomological evidence used to prove abuse and neglect in animals. [15] Leading causes of myiasis in animals occur when there is an injury or the presence of excretory material, making the living animal alluring to insects. The following characteristics have to be present for myiasis to happen in a pet animal. There has to be abuse or neglect that causes an injury with blood, decaying tissue, feces or urine that attracts flies and the animals must be fairly helpless or incapable of cleaning themselves. In long-coated animals, matts and burrs can cause irritation which leads to hot spots, scratching, open lacerations, and infestation. Animals with long mats and coats are especially prone to the building of excrement around the genital area. This circumstance worsens when the animal is elderly or hindered and can no longer clean itself. Risk factors are further intensified if the animal spends most of its life outdoors and is vulnerable to external environments. Regular grooming and check-ups can significantly reduce these risks. In addition, eliminating other fly attractants, such as uneaten food and fecal matter, can also reduce risks. The summer season is when the highest risk occurs because insects are more common during this time. [16]

Myiasis often occurs in wild, and domestic animals. In particular, rabbits, pigs, dogs, and sheep can be victims of “blowfly strike” because of the urine or fecal matter stuck to their fur, fleece, or hind quarters through neglect, poor captivity and living conditions, or ill health. [4] “Blowfly strike” is a well-recognized and economically damaging problem primarily seen in sheep. “Blowfly strike” is estimated to cost the Australian sheep industry at least $161 million annually. [17] [18] [19] 9 of the 10 cases submitted by the British Columbia Veterinary Medical Association stated that the insects colonizing most animals were the metallic Blue-Green Blow Fly ( Lucilia illustris , Meigen) or the Green Bottle Fly ( Phaenicia sericata , Meigen). In one case, the larvae of botfly ( Cuterebra jellison , Curran) colonized a pet rabbit. Lucilia illustris and Phaenicia sericata are common and ubiquitous blowfly species that are frequently reported in forensic cases involving human homicide [20] [21] [22] [23] and wildlife crime. [24]

Case Study 1: One veterinarian reported that a dog presented with severe edema of the muzzle and several maxillary fractures of unknown cause. The maxilla was wired, and the dog was sent home. Four days later the owner noticed that skin and subcutaneous tissue appeared to be sloughing, so the veterinarian was again consulted. On closer examination, some of the teeth were found to be fractured and rotting and therefore, were extracted. At this point, maggots were observed throughout the injured area, and the veterinarian took several radiographs. The radiographs indicated that almost 100 pieces of lead buckshot were present throughout the area. In this case, the presence of the maggots alerted the veterinarian to the more serious nature of the injuries. [16]

Case Study 2: A civilian reported liquid leaking from a neighbor's garage and mentioned hearing barking and whining for weeks. Investigators made the discovery of a deceased dog, a food bowl occupied with an unknown substance, and a bag of feces all in separate areas of the garage. Each was congregated with differing species of fly larvae. Identification of the larvae stage in the life cycle (1st, 2nd, or 3rd instar) enabled scientists to come to conclusions regarding the neglect of each of the three situations. The forensic entomologists estimated how many days the animal had been deceased, how many days the bag of feces had been left there, and how many days the food bowl was exposed. [25]

Forensically important species

Species of importance include:

Current research

Currently, extensive research on insect indicators of abuse or neglect is being conducted and published by Mark Benecke, a German forensic entomologist. Unfortunately, the majority of the research material available (such as case studies) is written in German. Further investigation about entomological evidence used in abuse or neglect cases in all probability exists yet is not currently published or available to the general public.

Conclusion

The field of forensic entomology is an ever-expanding one. As more case studies are presented and more research is conducted the ability to use insects as determining evidence in cases of abuse or neglect grows. Currently, the use of insects as indicators of abuse or neglect is not a common occurrence. Although popular culture illustrates forensic entomology as a strict determining factor in legal cases, science is generally used as an aid to elicit more evidence.

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Forensic entomology</span> Application of insect and other arthropod biology to forensics

Forensic entomology is the scientific study of the colonization of a dead body by arthropods. This includes the study of insect types commonly associated with cadavers, their respective life cycles, their ecological presences in a given environment, as well as the changes in insect assemblage with the progression of decomposition. Insect succession patterns are identified based on the time a given species of insect spends in a given developmental stage, and how many generations have been produced since the insects introduction to a given food source. Insect development alongside environmental data such as temperature and vapor density, can be used to estimate the time since death, due to the fact that flying insects are attracted to a body immediately after death. The identification of postmortem interval to aid in death investigations is the primary scope of this scientific field. However, forensic entomology is not limited to homicides, it has also been used in cases of neglect and abuse, in toxicology contexts to detect the presence of drugs, and in dry shelf food contamination incidents. Equally, insect assemblages present on a body, can be used to approximate a given location, as certain insects may be unique to certain areas. Therefore, forensic entomology can be divided into three subfields: urban, stored-product and medico-legal/medico-criminal entomology.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Maggot</span> Larva of a fly

A maggot is the larva of a fly ; it is applied in particular to the larvae of Brachycera flies, such as houseflies, cheese flies, and blowflies, rather than larvae of the Nematocera, such as mosquitoes and crane flies.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Calliphoridae</span> Family of insects in the Diptera order

The Calliphoridae are a family of insects in the order Diptera, with almost 1,900 known species. The maggot larvae, often used as fishing bait, are known as gentles. The family is known to be polyphyletic, but much remains disputed regarding proper treatment of the constituent taxa, some of which are occasionally accorded family status.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Myiasis</span> Infestation of parasitic maggots

Myiasis, also known as flystrike or fly strike, is the parasitic infestation of the body of a live animal by fly larvae (maggots) that grow inside the host while feeding on its tissue. Although flies are most commonly attracted to open wounds and urine- or feces-soaked fur, some species can create an infestation even on unbroken skin and have been known to use moist soil and non-myiatic flies as vector agents for their parasitic larvae.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Common green bottle fly</span> Species of insect

The common green bottle fly is a blowfly found in most areas of the world and is the most well-known of the numerous green bottle fly species. Its body is 10–14 mm (0.39–0.55 in) in length – slightly larger than a house fly – and has brilliant, metallic, blue-green or golden coloration with black markings. It has short, sparse, black bristles (setae) and three cross-grooves on the thorax. The wings are clear with light brown veins, and the legs and antennae are black. The larvae of the fly may be used for maggot therapy, are commonly used in forensic entomology, and can be the cause of myiasis in livestock and pets. The common green bottle fly emerges in the spring for mating.

<i>Calliphora vomitoria</i> Species of fly

Calliphora vomitoria, known as the blue bottle fly, orange-bearded blue bottle, or bottlebee is a species of blow fly, a species in the family Calliphoridae. Calliphora vomitoria is the type species of the genus Calliphora. It is common throughout many continents including Europe, Americas, and Africa. They are fairly large flies, nearly twice the size of the housefly, with a metallic blue abdomen and long orange setae on the gena.

<i>Chrysomya rufifacies</i> Species of fly

Chrysomya rufifacies is a species belonging to the blow fly family, Calliphoridae, and is most significant in the field of forensic entomology due to its use in establishing or altering post mortem intervals. The common name for the species is the hairy maggot blow fly, and it belongs to the genus Chrysomya, which is commonly referred to as the Old World screwworms. This genus includes other species such as Chrysomya putoria and Chrysomya bezziana, which are agents of myiasis. C. rufifacies prefers very warm weather and has a relatively short lifecycle. It is widely distributed geographically and prefers to colonize large carcasses over small ones. The species commonly has a greenish metallic appearance and is important medically, economically, and forensically.

Forensic entomological decomposition is how insects decompose and what that means for timing and information in criminal investigations. Medicolegal entomology is a branch of forensic entomology that applies the study of insects to criminal investigations, and is commonly used in death investigations for estimating the post-mortem interval (PMI). One method of obtaining this estimate uses the time and pattern of arthropod colonization. This method will provide an estimation of the period of insect activity, which may or may not correlate exactly with the time of death. While insect successional data may not provide as accurate an estimate during the early stages of decomposition as developmental data, it is applicable for later decompositional stages and can be accurate for periods up to a few years.

<i>Lucilia illustris</i> Species of insect

Lucilia illustris is a member of the fly family Calliphoridae, commonly known as a blow fly. Along with several other species, L. illustris is commonly referred to as a green bottle fly. Lucilia illustris is typically 6–9 mm in length and has a metallic blue-green thorax. The larvae develop in three instars, each with unique developmental properties. The adult fly typically will feed on flowers, but the females need some sort of carrion protein in order to breed and lay eggs.

<i>Phormia regina</i> Species of fly

Phormia regina, the black blow fly, belongs to the blow fly family Calliphoridae and was first described by Johann Wilhelm Meigen.

In forensic entomology, entomotoxicology is the analysis of toxins in arthropods that feed on carrion. Using arthropods in a corpse or at a crime scene, investigators can determine whether toxins were present in a body at the time of death. This technique is a major advance in forensics; previously, such determinations were impossible in the case of severely decomposed bodies devoid of intoxicated tissue and bodily fluids. Ongoing research into the effects of toxins on arthropod development has also allowed better estimations of postmortem intervals.

<i>Lucilia silvarum</i> Species of fly

The common toad fly, Lucilia silvarum, is a member of the fly family Calliphoridae. This fly was first discovered by Johann Wilhelm Meigen in 1826 and is found most notably in European and Western Countries.

<i>Sarcophaga pernix</i> Species of fly

Sarcophaga pernix, also known as the red-tailed flesh fly, is a fly in the Sarcophagidae family. This fly often breeds in carrion and feces, making it a possible vector for disease. The larvae of this species can cause myiasis, as well as accidental myiasis. It is potentially useful in forensic entomology.

Lucilia thatuna belongs to the family Calliphoridae, the species most commonly referred to as the blowflies, and the genus Lucilia. Along with several other species of Lucilia, L. thatuna is commonly referred to as a green bottle fly. L. thatuna is very scarce and not much is known about this particular fly. It has been noted to reside in mountainous regions of the northwestern United States.

<i>Lucilia cuprina</i> Species of fly

Lucilia cuprina, formerly named Phaenicia cuprina, the Australian sheep blowfly is a blow fly in the family Calliphoridae. It causes the condition known as "sheep strike"'. The female fly locates a sheep with ideal conditions, such as an open wound or a build-up of faeces or urine in the wool, in which she lays her eggs. The emerging larvae cause large lesions on the sheep, which may prove to be fatal.

<i>Cynomya cadaverina</i> Species of fly

Cynomya cadaverina, also known as the shiny blue bottle fly, is a member of the family Calliphoridae, which includes blow flies as well as bottle flies. In recent years, this family has become a forensically important facet in many medicocriminal investigations in the growing field of forensic entomology. C. cadaverina is specifically important in determining a post-mortem interval, as well as other important factors.

<i>Muscina</i> Genus of flies

Muscina is a genus of flies that belongs to the family Muscidae, currently consisting of 27 species. They are worldwide in distribution and are frequently found in livestock facilities and outside restrooms. The most common species are M. stabulans, M. levida, and M. prolapsa. Muscina flies commonly breed in manure and defecate on food, which has been linked to the spread of some disease and illnesses. The occurrence of Muscina larvae on dead bodies has led to their regular use in forensic investigations, as they may be used to estimate the time of death. Research have shown the prevalence of certain species of Muscina flies as vectors of diseases such as poliomyelitis.

<i>Calliphora livida</i> Species of fly

Calliphora livida is a member of the family Calliphoridae, the blow flies. This large family includes the genus Calliphora, the "blue bottle flies". This genus is important in the field of forensic entomology because of its value in post-mortem interval estimation.

<i>Lucilia coeruleiviridis</i> Species of fly

Lucilia coeruleiviridis, formerly Phaenecia coeruleiviridis, is commonly known as a green bottle fly, because of its metallic blue-green thorax and abdomen. L. coeruleiviridis was first discovered by French entomologist Pierre-Justin-Marie Macquart in 1855. It belongs to the family Calliphoridae and is one of many forensically important Diptera, as it is often found on decaying substances. L. coeruleiviridis is one of the most ubiquitous blow fly species in the southeastern United States, particularly in the spring and fall months.

<i>Protophormia terraenovae</i> Species of fly

Protophormia terraenovae is commonly called northern blowfly, blue-bottle fly or blue-assed fly. It is distinguished by its deep blue coloration and large size and is an important species throughout the Northern Hemisphere. This fly is notable for its economic effect as a myiasis pest of livestock and its antibiotic benefits in maggot therapy. Also of interest is P. terraenovae’s importance in forensic investigations: because of their temperature-dependent development and their prominent presence on corpses, the larvae of this species are useful in minimum post-mortem interval (mPMI) determination.

References

  1. ↑ Catts, E P; Goff, M L (1992-01-01). "Forensic Entomology in Criminal Investigations". Annual Review of Entomology. 37 (1): 253–272. doi:10.1146/annurev.en.37.010192.001345. ISSN   0066-4170. PMID   1539937. S2CID   37652159.
  2. ↑ "abuse." Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc. 21 Mar. 2008. <Dictionary.com http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/abuse
  3. ↑ "neglect." The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. 21 Mar. 2008. <Dictionary.com http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/neglect>.
  4. 1 2 Gennard DE. Forensic Entomology: An Introduction. Wiley & Sons Ltd. 2007;1:13-14.
  5. ↑ Sherman RA, Hall MJR, Thomas S. Medicinal Maggots: An Ancient Remedy for Some Contemporary Afflictions. Annu Rev Entomol. 2000;45:55–81.
  6. ↑ Guerrini VH. Ammonia Toxicity and Alkalosis in Sheep Infested by Lucilia cuprina Larvae. Int J Parasitol. 1988;18:79–81.
  7. ↑ Benecke, Mark; Lessig, Rüdiger (2001). "Child neglect and forensic entomology". Forensic Science International. 120 (1–2): 155–159. doi:10.1016/S0379-0738(01)00424-8. PMID   11457624.
  8. ↑ Catts, E P; Goff, M L (1992-01-01). "Forensic Entomology in Criminal Investigations". Annual Review of Entomology. 37 (1): 253–272. doi:10.1146/annurev.en.37.010192.001345. ISSN   0066-4170. PMID   1539937. S2CID   37652159.
  9. ↑ "Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act." Administration for Children and Families. 10 FEB 2006. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 21 Mar 2008 <http://www.acf.hhs.gov/programs/cb/laws_policies/cblaws/capta/index.htm Archived 2008-03-30 at the Wayback Machine >
  10. 1 2 Spitz WU. Medicolegal Investigation of Death. 4th ed. Springfield: Charles C Thomas Ltd, 2004; 8:357-363.
  11. ↑ Benecke, Mark, Rüdiger Lessig. "Child Neglect and Forensic Entomology Archived 2011-07-07 at the Wayback Machine ." Forensic Science International 155-9(2001): 120 ff.
  12. 1 2 Elder Abuse and Neglect. Molly Hofer. 2008. http://www.urbanext.uiuc.edu/elderabuse/signs.html.
  13. ↑ Nursing Home Abuse. Goldberg, Persky, and White. 2004. 5 May 2007 http://www.elderly-abuse.com.
  14. 1 2 3 Benecke, Mark. "Neglect of the elderly: forensic entomology cases and considerations." Forensic Science International 146S (2004): S195-S199.
  15. ↑ James MT. The Flies That Cause Myiasis in Man. Miscellaneous Publication #631, Washington, D.C.: US Department of Agriculture, 1947.
  16. 1 2 Anderson, Gail. "Myiasis in pet animals in British Columbia: The potential of forensic entomology for determining duration of possible neglect." Canadian Veterinary Journal 45(2004): 993-998.
  17. ↑ Wall R, French N, Morgan K. Blowfly Species Composition in Sheep Myiasis in Britain. Med Vet Entomol. 1992;6:177–178.
  18. ↑ Wall R, French NP, Morgan KL. Population Suppression for Control of the Blowfly Lucilia sericata and Sheep Blowfly Strike. Ecol Entomol. 1995;20:91–97.
  19. ↑ Hall MJ. Traumatic Myiasis of Sheep in Europe: a review. Parasitologia. 1997;139:409–413.
  20. ↑ Greenberg B. Forensic entomology: case studies. Bull Entomol Soc Am. 1985;31:25–28.
  21. ↑ Lord WD, Catts EP, Scarboro DA, Hadfield DB. The green blowfly, Lucilia illustris (Meigen), as an indicator of human post-mortem interval: a case of homicide from Fort Lewis, Washington. Bull Soc Vector Ecol. 1986;11:271–275.
  22. ↑ Anderson GS. Insect succession on carrion and its relationship to determining time of death. In: Byrd JH, Castner JL, eds. Forensic Entomology. The Utility of Arthropods in Legal Investigations. Boca Raton: CRC Pr 2001:143–175.
  23. ↑ Anderson GS. The Use of Insects in Death Investigations: An Analysis of Forensic Entomology Cases in British Columbia Over A Five Year Period. Can Soc Forensic Sci J. 1995;28:277–292.
  24. ↑ Anderson GS. Wildlife forensic entomology: determining time of death in two illegally killed black bear cubs, a case report. J Forensic Sci. 1999;44:856–859. [PubMed]
  25. ↑ Merck, Melinda D. (2013). Veterinary Forensics: Animal Cruelty Investigations (2nd ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Inc. p. 276. ISBN   978-0-470-96162-9.
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