Ionospheric storm

Last updated
X-Ray image of aurora borealis taken during an ionospheric storm by the Global Geospace Science Polar satellite X-ray Aurora from POLAR overlay.png
X-Ray image of aurora borealis taken during an ionospheric storm by the Global Geospace Science Polar satellite

Ionospheric storms are storms which contain varying densities [1] of energised electrons in the ionosphere as produced from the Sun. Ionospheric storms are caused by geomagnetic storms. [2] They are categorised into positive and negative storms, where positive storms have a high density of electrons and negative storms contain a lower density. [3] The total electron content (TEC) is used to measure these densities, and is a key variable used in data to record and compare the intensities of ionospheric storms.

Contents

Ionospheric storm occurrences are strongly linked with sudden increases of solar wind speed, where solar wind brings energised electrons into the upper atmosphere of Earth and contributes to increased TEC. [4] Larger storms form global visibility of auroras. Auroras are most commonly seen in the Arctic Circle; however, large ionospheric storms allow for them to be visible at somewhat lower latitudes. The most intense ionospheric storm occurred in 1859, commonly named the “solar storm of 1859” or the “Carrington Event.” The Carrington Event was named after Richard Carrington, an English astronomer who observed the irregular sun activity [5] that occurred during the Carrington Event. The intensity of the storm brought the visibility of the aurora to lower latitudes, and it was reportedly seen in places such as Florida and the Caribbean. Ionospheric storms can happen at any time and location. [6]

F-region and D-region ionospheric storms are also considered main categories of ionospheric storms. The F-region storms occur due to sudden increases of energised electrons instilled into Earth's ionosphere. The F-region is the highest region of the ionosphere. Consisting of the F1 and F2 layers, its distance above the Earth's surface is approximately 200–500 km. [7] The duration of these storms are around a day and reoccur every approximately 27.3 days. [6] Most ionospheric abnormalities occur in the F2 and E layers of the ionosphere. D-region storms occur immediately after F-region storms, and are referred to as the “Post-Storm Effect," the duration of it spanning for a week after the F-region storm's occurrence. [8]

Historical occurrences

The largest ionospheric storm occurred during the Carrington event on August 28, 1859 and caused extensive damages to various parts including the sparking of fires in railway signals and telegraph wires. [9] The substantial density of energised electrons produced by the storm caused these electrical overloads and shortages.

Occurrences of storms in the last 35 years have been consolidated and measured in maximum Ap [2] which records the average daily geomagnetic activity during ionospheric storms. There are higher levels of geomagnetic activity with high maximum Ap counts. Ap counts in terms of geomagnetic activity from 0-7 are considered "quiet," 8-15 "unsettled," 16-29 "active," 30-49 "minor storm," 50-99 "major storm," and above 100 classified as a "severe storm." [10] Minor storms in the last 35 years ranging from 30-49 Ap occurred on 13 September 1999 (46), 11 October 2008 (34), 11 March 2011 (37), 9 October 2012 (46) and on 19 February 2014 (43). Major storms ranging from 50-99 Ap occurred on 6 April 2000 (82), 7 April 2000 (74), 11 April 2001 (85), 18 April 2002 (63), 20 April 2002 (70), 22 January 2004 (64), 18 January 2005 (84), 5 April 2010 (55), 9 March 2012 (87), 15 July 2012 (78) and on 1 June 2013 (58). Severe storms equalling or exceeding 100 Ap occurred on 8 February 1986 (202), 9 February 1986 (100), 13 March 1989 (246), 14 March 1989 (158), 17 November 1989 (109), 10 April 1990 (124), 7 April 1995 (100), 31 March 2001 (192), 6 November 2001 (142), 18 August 2003 (108), 29 October 2003 (204), 30 October 2003 (191), 20 November 2003 (150), 27 July 2004 (186), 8 November 2004 (140) and on 10 November 2004 (161). [2]

In recent accounts, the St Patrick's Day storms in March 2013 and 2015 caused a strong negative phase in the F2 ionospheric region. The March 2013 and 2015 storms were also long-lasting, spanning for over 6 hours. [11] The June 2015 Southern Hemisphere winter storm had a shorter duration, lasting between 4 and 6 hours, and producing a positive effect in the ionosphere. It is difficult to determine the exact location and time for the occurrences of ionospheric storms, their effects being dependent on season, their varying starting points, compositional changes in the ionosphere and the travelling ionospheric disturbances (TIDs) in relation to gravity waves having varying impacts on different locations. [11]

Phases of ionospheric storms

In the commencement of an ionospheric storm, due to geomagnetic disturbances in the ionosphere, the storm will become positive for a brief duration. Then, it will become a negative phase storm, and revert to a recovery phase where electron density neutralises. [12]

Positive phase

The positive phase of an ionospheric storm will last for around the first 24 hours. In this phase, electron density in the ionosphere, particularly in higher altitude layers such as F1 and F2 will increase. Ionisation in the positive phase will be less apparent due to the increase of electron density. [13] Positive phase ionospheric storms have a longer duration and are more prevalent in winter. [13] During the positive phase of large ionospheric storms, the altitude of ionospheric F-region increases, resulting in the massive tongue-shaped plasma anomaly spreading anti-sunward over the geomagnetic pole, which can be observed by ground radars, [14] as well as by satellites and the GPS system. [15] Even for the largest geomagnetic storms, such as the 20 November 2003 superstorm, modern general circulation models are able to simulate positive ionospheric anomalies. [16]

Negative phase

The negative phase of an ionospheric storm will occur directly after the storm's positive phase and last one to two days after the positive phase decreases in electron density to "below its quiet time reference level." [13] Negative phases decrease the electron density of the storm. They also span for longer durations and appear more often during summer. [13]

Recovery phase

The recovery phase of the ionospheric storm occurs after the negative phase ends and neutralises the electron density. A time scale of 12 hours to 1 day can be used in accordance with the Thermosphere Ionosphere General Circulation Model (TIGCM) as a means of calculating the precise time of electron density restabilising post-storm. [17]

Effects on ionospheric layers

The effects of ionospheric storms on different layers in the ionosphere including in the F-region, E-region and D-region vary depending on the magnitude of the storm. F-Region is the most affected layer due to it ranging the highest altitude compared to the E-region and D-region. The D-region is the region with the lowest altitude and will receive the least geomagnetic disturbance.

F-region

The F-region is the highest layer of the ionosphere and inner atmosphere, around 200 km above Earth's surface and spanning around 300 km in total layer altitude. The F2-region of the F-region (highest altitude inner atmospheric layer) will be affected through the decrease of critical frequency and maximum usable frequency, which is necessary for high-frequency radio communication. [12] The F-region is affected by the friction of solar wind on the ionospheric boundaries which causes magnetospheric motion that may infiltrate into the ionosphere or exit it, creating disturbances that increase and decrease TEC and electron density. [18] During ionospheric storms, it is more common for "anomalous" increases and decreases of TEC and electron density to occur in the F2-layer. [19] Ionisation density is also affected in the F-region, decreasing as the height increases, [20] and as ionisation density increases, atoms lose electrons and therefore lower altitudes lose electron density. [21] The lower layers of the F-region such as the F1-layer have higher amounts of ionisation and less electron density.

E-region

The E-region is the middle layer of the ionosphere, approximately 100 km above the Earth's surface, spanning around 100 km up. Effects on the E-region are mainly associated with the high latitudes of the layer, where more severe geomagnetic disturbances occur. Ionisation in this layer is predominantly derived from the particle precipitation in auroras. [22] Due to its lower latitude, there is greater ionisation density compared to that of the F-region, and less electron density. Increased conductivity of currents is caused by the convection electric fields of the magnetosphere that run down the lines of the magnetic field in the E-region. [22] The increased conductivity is also from the effects of the ionospheric storm. There is also a maximisation in the E-region of the transfer of energy from plasma to neutral particles which promotes "frictional heating" and is used as a heat source for the thermosphere. [22]

D-region

The D-region is the lowest layer of the ionosphere, approximately 60 km above the Earth's surface and its layer's altitude spanning around 30–40 km. The top of the D-region is around 90–100 km above the Earth's surface. When ionospheric storms occur, there is enhanced ionisation of electrons that happens in the D-region and causes a decline in day-night asymmetry (DLPT depth.) [23] DLPT depth is calculated by subtracting average day rate by average night rate and dividing it by the average of the rates. [24] The DLPT depth decreases as Ap increases in the D-layer.

Impacts

Radio communications

There can be strong disturbances to telecommunications in the event of an ionospheric storm, where in middle and high altitudes, [25] radio communications are considered “ineffective.” [25] This is due to radio waves being found in the ionosphere where the sudden increase of solar wind and energised electrons will interfere. The impacts of disturbances related to radio communications can include temporary blackouts of signal to radio wave-based technology such as televisions, radios, and cordless phones. [26] Global impacts vary, including the detriment of digital broadcasting and the displaying of information through radio-communication technologies which may temporarily eliminate the use of certain technologies.

Aircraft and electrical systems

Aircraft passengers and crew receive a higher dose of radiation during an ionospheric storm, relative to people at sea level. Flight altitudes are usually 10 km or more, so when an ionospheric storm occurs during the flight, people on the plane will potentially gain an approximate 0.1% chance of developing a lethal cancer during their lifetime. The plane when flying at a 10 km or above altitude will have around 300 times more exposure to ionised radiation than on sea level. [27] The energised particles produced by the ionospheric storm can also potentially cause damage and disrupt microelectronic circuitry due to single-event error (SEE), when the energised particles interconnect with the semiconductor device and causes system failure. [27] The short-circuiting of aircraft electrical equipment can be a distraction to the aircrew, which can be a safety hazard.

Satellites

Solar cells on satellites may be damaged or destroyed in ionospheric storms, which can hinder the transmission of signals.

Climate

Earthward solar winds [28] and excessive radiation produced from it has limited effect on the climate. The radiation emitted by solar wind only reaches the highest layers of the Earth's atmosphere, including the ionosphere. There are however reports of a possible impact on lower layers of the atmosphere. It is recorded that the increase of solar wind during March 2012 in the United States coincided with the heat waves that occurred at the time. [29] A statistical connection between the occurrence of heavy floods and ionospheric storms caused by high-speed solar wind streams (HSSs) has been also reported. The enhanced energy deposition into the auroral ionosphere during HSSs is suggested to generate downward-propagating atmospheric gravity waves. The excited gravity waves reach lower atmosphere, triggering an instability in the troposphere and leading to excessive rainfall. [30]

GPS and GNSS systems

Due to the disturbances of signals in the ionosphere caused by ionospheric storms, GPS systems are drastically affected. In the late 20th and 21st centuries, GPS signals were incorporated within various phones, so the commonality of its use has greatly increased since its release. It is a significant piece of technology that is almost entirely affected as it serves the purpose of displaying directions, which can prevent people from being able to tell directions. Directional equipment like Global Navigation Satellite Services (GNSS) is also used in aircraft. This system can be compromised by radiation damage on satellites and solar cells all of which are needed for this navigation system to work. When an aircraft loses access to GNSS in the event of an ionospheric storm, backup aircraft procedures are available. [27]

Storm detection technology

During the Carrington Event in 1859 where there were only a limited number of available measuring technologies, the full extent of the impacts could not be precisely recorded apart from recounts in newspaper articles written in 1859. In the late 20th and early 21st century, forecasting technology has been improved. This technology allows meteorologists to detect the highest frequency that can be vertically returned [31] 24 hours in advance with accuracy of 8-13% periods with limited disturbance. PropMan, created by K. Davies in the early 1970s is a program that contains the ionospheric prediction code (IONSTORM), to forecast maximum usable frequencies (MUFs) during ionospheric storms when F-region communication frequencies are negated. [32]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ionosphere</span> Ionized part of Earths upper atmosphere

The ionosphere is the ionized part of the upper atmosphere of Earth, from about 48 km (30 mi) to 965 km (600 mi) above sea level, a region that includes the thermosphere and parts of the mesosphere and exosphere. The ionosphere is ionized by solar radiation. It plays an important role in atmospheric electricity and forms the inner edge of the magnetosphere. It has practical importance because, among other functions, it influences radio propagation to distant places on Earth. It also affects GPS signals that travel through this layer.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Solar wind</span> Stream of charged particles from the Sun

The solar wind is a stream of charged particles released from the upper atmosphere of the Sun, called the corona. This plasma mostly consists of electrons, protons and alpha particles with kinetic energy between 0.5 and 10 keV. The composition of the solar wind plasma also includes a mixture of materials found in the solar plasma: trace amounts of heavy ions and atomic nuclei of elements such as C, N, O, Ne, Mg, Si, S, and Fe. There are also rarer traces of some other nuclei and isotopes such as P, Ti, Cr, and 58Ni, 60Ni, and 62Ni. Superimposed with the solar-wind plasma is the interplanetary magnetic field. The solar wind varies in density, temperature and speed over time and over solar latitude and longitude. Its particles can escape the Sun's gravity because of their high energy resulting from the high temperature of the corona, which in turn is a result of the coronal magnetic field. The boundary separating the corona from the solar wind is called the Alfvén surface.

The F region of the ionosphere is home to the F layer of ionization, also called the Appleton–Barnett layer, after the English physicist Edward Appleton and New Zealand physicist and meteorologist Miles Barnett. As with other ionospheric sectors, 'layer' implies a concentration of plasma, while 'region' is the volume that contains the said layer. The F region contains ionized gases at a height of around 150–800 km above sea level, placing it in the Earth's thermosphere, a hot region in the upper atmosphere, and also in the heterosphere, where chemical composition varies with height. Generally speaking, the F region has the highest concentration of free electrons and ions anywhere in the atmosphere. It may be thought of as comprising two layers, the F1 and F2 layers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Thermosphere</span> Layer of the Earths atmosphere above the mesosphere and below the exosphere

The thermosphere is the layer in the Earth's atmosphere directly above the mesosphere and below the exosphere. Within this layer of the atmosphere, ultraviolet radiation causes photoionization/photodissociation of molecules, creating ions; the thermosphere thus constitutes the larger part of the ionosphere. Taking its name from the Greek θερμός meaning heat, the thermosphere begins at about 80 km (50 mi) above sea level. At these high altitudes, the residual atmospheric gases sort into strata according to molecular mass. Thermospheric temperatures increase with altitude due to absorption of highly energetic solar radiation. Temperatures are highly dependent on solar activity, and can rise to 2,000 °C (3,630 °F) or more. Radiation causes the atmospheric particles in this layer to become electrically charged, enabling radio waves to be refracted and thus be received beyond the horizon. In the exosphere, beginning at about 600 km (375 mi) above sea level, the atmosphere turns into space, although, by the judging criteria set for the definition of the Kármán line (100 km), most of the thermosphere is part of space. The border between the thermosphere and exosphere is known as the thermopause.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Aurora</span> Natural luminous atmospheric effect observed chiefly at high latitudes

An aurora , also commonly known as the northern lights or southern lights, is a natural light display in Earth's sky, predominantly seen in high-latitude regions. Auroras display dynamic patterns of brilliant lights that appear as curtains, rays, spirals, or dynamic flickers covering the entire sky.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Solar flare</span> Eruption of electromagnetic radiation

A solar flare is a relatively intense, localized emission of electromagnetic radiation in the Sun's atmosphere. Flares occur in active regions and are often, but not always, accompanied by coronal mass ejections, solar particle events, and other eruptive solar phenomena. The occurrence of solar flares varies with the 11-year solar cycle.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Van Allen radiation belt</span> Zone of energetic charged particles around the planet Earth

Van Allen radiation belt is a zone of energetic charged particles, most of which originate from the solar wind, that are captured by and held around a planet by that planet's magnetosphere. Earth has two such belts, and sometimes others may be temporarily created. The belts are named after James Van Allen, who is credited with their discovery.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Space weather</span> Branch of space physics and aeronomy

Space weather is a branch of space physics and aeronomy, or heliophysics, concerned with the varying conditions within the Solar System and its heliosphere. This includes the effects of the solar wind, especially on the Earth's magnetosphere, ionosphere, thermosphere, and exosphere. Though physically distinct, space weather is analogous to the terrestrial weather of Earth's atmosphere. The term "space weather" was first used in the 1950s and popularized in the 1990s. Later, it prompted research into "space climate", the large-scale and long-term patterns of space weather.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Geomagnetic storm</span> Disturbance of the Earths magnetosphere

A geomagnetic storm, also known as a magnetic storm, is temporary disturbance of the Earth's magnetosphere caused by a solar wind shock wave.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Coronal mass ejection</span> Ejecta from the Suns corona

A coronal mass ejection (CME) is a significant ejection of magnetic field and accompanying plasma mass from the Sun's corona into the heliosphere. CMEs are often associated with solar flares and other forms of solar activity, but a broadly accepted theoretical understanding of these relationships has not been established.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Birkeland current</span> Currents flowing along geomagnetic field lines

A Birkeland current is a set of electrical currents that flow along geomagnetic field lines connecting the Earth's magnetosphere to the Earth's high latitude ionosphere. In the Earth's magnetosphere, the currents are driven by the solar wind and interplanetary magnetic field and by bulk motions of plasma through the magnetosphere. The strength of the Birkeland currents changes with activity in the magnetosphere. Small scale variations in the upward current sheets accelerate magnetospheric electrons which, when they reach the upper atmosphere, create the Auroras Borealis and Australis. In the high latitude ionosphere, the Birkeland currents close through the region of the auroral electrojet, which flows perpendicular to the local magnetic field in the ionosphere. The Birkeland currents occur in two pairs of field-aligned current sheets. One pair extends from noon through the dusk sector to the midnight sector. The other pair extends from noon through the dawn sector to the midnight sector. The sheet on the high latitude side of the auroral zone is referred to as the Region 1 current sheet and the sheet on the low latitude side is referred to as the Region 2 current sheet.

A sudden ionospheric disturbance (SID) is any one of several ionospheric perturbations, resulting from abnormally high ionization/plasma density in the D region of the ionosphere and caused by a solar flare and/or solar particle event (SPE). The SID results in a sudden increase in radio-wave absorption that is most severe in the upper medium frequency (MF) and lower high frequency (HF) ranges, and as a result often interrupts or interferes with telecommunications systems.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Carrington Event</span> Geomagnetic storm in 1859

The Carrington Event was the most intense geomagnetic storm in recorded history, peaking from 1 to 2 September 1859 during solar cycle 10. It created strong auroral displays that were reported globally and caused sparking and even fires in multiple telegraph stations. The geomagnetic storm was most likely the result of a coronal mass ejection (CME) from the Sun colliding with Earth's magnetosphere.

The impact of the solar wind onto the magnetosphere generates an electric field within the inner magnetosphere - the convection field-. Its general direction is from dawn to dusk. The co-rotating thermal plasma within the inner magnetosphere drifts orthogonal to that field and to the geomagnetic field Bo. The generation process is not yet completely understood. One possibility is viscous interaction between solar wind and the boundary layer of the magnetosphere (magnetopause). Another process may be magnetic reconnection. Finally, a hydromagnetic dynamo process in the polar regions of the inner magnetosphere may be possible. Direct measurements via satellites have given a fairly good picture of the structure of that field. A number of models of that field exists.

In the height region between about 85 and 200 km altitude on Earth, the ionospheric plasma is electrically conducting. Atmospheric tidal winds due to differential solar heating or due to gravitational lunar forcing move the ionospheric plasma against the geomagnetic field lines thus generating electric fields and currents just like a dynamo coil moving against magnetic field lines. That region is therefore called ionospheric dynamo region. The magnetic manifestation of these electric currents on the ground can be observed during magnetospheric quiet conditions. They are called Sq-variations and L-variations (L=lunar) of the geomagnetic field. Additional electric currents are generated by the varying magnetospheric electric convection field. These are the DP1-currents and the polar DP2-currents. Finally, a polar-ring current has been derived from the observations which depends on the polarity of the interplanetary magnetic field. These geomagnetic variations belong to the so-called external part of the geomagnetic field. Their amplitudes reach at most about 1% of the main internal geomagnetic field Bo.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Solar particle event</span> Solar phenomenon

In solar physics, a solar particle event (SPE), also known as a solar energetic particle (SEP) event or solar radiation storm, is a solar phenomenon which occurs when particles emitted by the Sun, mostly protons, become accelerated either in the Sun's atmosphere during a solar flare or in interplanetary space by a coronal mass ejection shock. Other nuclei such as helium and HZE ions may also be accelerated during the event. These particles can penetrate the Earth's magnetic field and cause partial ionization of the ionosphere. Energetic protons are a significant radiation hazard to spacecraft and astronauts.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Solar phenomena</span> Natural phenomena within the Suns atmosphere

Solar phenomena are natural phenomena which occur within the atmosphere of the Sun. They take many forms, including solar wind, radio wave flux, solar flares, coronal mass ejections, coronal heating and sunspots.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">August 1972 solar storms</span> Solar storms during solar cycle 20

The solar storms of August 1972 were a historically powerful series of solar storms with intense to extreme solar flare, solar particle event, and geomagnetic storm components in early August 1972, during solar cycle 20. The storm caused widespread electric‐ and communication‐grid disturbances through large portions of North America as well as satellite disruptions. On 4 August 1972 the storm caused the accidental detonation of numerous U.S. naval mines near Haiphong, North Vietnam. The coronal mass ejection (CME)'s transit time from the Sun to the Earth is the fastest ever recorded.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Space hurricane</span> Solar windstorm

A space hurricane is a huge, funnel-like, spiral geomagnetic storm that occurs above the polar Ionosphere of Earth, during extremely quiet conditions. They are related to the aurora borealis phenomenon, as the electron precipitation from the storm's funnel produces gigantic, cyclone-shaped auroras. Scientists believe that they occur in the polar regions of planets with magnetic fields.

References

  1. ↑ Cander, Ljiljana R. (2018). Ionospheric Space Weather. Springer. ISBN   978-3-319-99331-7.
  2. 1 2 3 Ljiljana R. Cander (2019). Ionospheric Space Weather. Springer Geophysics. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-99331-7. ISBN   978-3-319-99330-0. S2CID   134212887.
  3. ↑ Fagundes, P. R.; Cardoso, F. A.; Fejer, B. G.; Venkatesh, K.; Ribeiro, B. a. G.; Pillat, V. G. (2016). "Positive and negative GPS-TEC ionospheric storm effects during the extreme space weather event of March 2015 over the Brazilian sector". Journal of Geophysical Research: Space Physics. 121 (6): 5613–5625. Bibcode:2016JGRA..121.5613F. doi:10.1002/2015JA022214. S2CID   51916199.
  4. ↑ Verkhoglyadova, O. P.; Tsurutani, B. T.; Mannucci, A. J.; Mlynczak, M. G.; Hunt, L. A.; Paxton, L. J.; Komjathy, A. (2016). "Solar wind driving of ionosphere-thermosphere responses in three storms near St. Patrick's Day in 2012, 2013, and 2015". Journal of Geophysical Research: Space Physics. 121 (9): 8900–8923. Bibcode:2016JGRA..121.8900V. doi:10.1002/2016JA022883. S2CID   133299363.
  5. ↑ Clark, Stuart (2007). "Astronomical fire: Richard Carrington and the solar flare of 1859". Endeavour. 31 (3): 104–109. doi:10.1016/j.endeavour.2007.07.004. PMID   17764743.
  6. 1 2 Ionospheric Storms (Ionospheric Abnormality )(हिन्दी ), archived from the original on 2021-12-21, retrieved 2020-05-28
  7. ↑ c=AU; co=Commonwealth of Australia; ou=Department of Sustainability, Environment. "Space Weather Services website". www.sws.bom.gov.au. Retrieved 2020-05-28.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  8. ↑ "Ionospheric Storms and Space Weather". www.albany.edu. Retrieved 2020-05-28.
  9. ↑ Crowley, Geoff; Azeem, Irfan (2018). "Extreme Ionospheric Storms and Their Effects on GPS Systems". In Buzulukova, Natalia (ed.). Extreme Events in Geospace. Elsevier. pp. 555–586. ISBN   978-0-12-812700-1.
  10. ↑ c=AU; co=Commonwealth of Australia; ou=Department of Sustainability, Environment. "Space Weather Services website". www.sws.bom.gov.au. Retrieved 2020-05-28.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  11. 1 2 Kumar, Sushil; Kumar, Vickal V. (2018). "Ionospheric Response to the St. Patrick's Day Space Weather Events in March 2012, 2013, and 2015 at Southern Low and Middle Latitudes". Journal of Geophysical Research: Space Physics. 124: 584–602. doi: 10.1029/2018JA025674 . S2CID   135105601.
  12. 1 2 Hu, S.; Bhattacharjee, A.; Hou, J.; Sun, B.; Roesler, D.; Frierdich, S.; Gibbs, N.; Whited, J. (1998). "Ionospheric storm forecast for high-frequency communications". Radio Science. 33 (5): 1413–1428. Bibcode:1998RaSc...33.1413H. doi:10.1029/98RS02219. S2CID   121130989.
  13. 1 2 3 4 Danilov, A. D.; Belik, L. D. (1992). "Thermospheric composition and the positive phase of an ionospheric storm". Advances in Space Research. 12 (10): 257–260. Bibcode:1992AdSpR..12j.257D. doi:10.1016/0273-1177(92)90475-D.
  14. ↑ Foster, J.C.; Coster, A.J.; Erickson, P.J.; Holt, J.M.; Lind, F.D.; Rideout, W.; McCready, M.; van Eyken, A.; Barnes, R.J.; Greenwald, R.A.; Rich, F.J. (2005). "Multiradar observations of the polar tongue of ionization". J. Geophys. Res. 110 (A9). Bibcode:2005JGRA..110.9S31F. doi:10.1029/2004JA010928. hdl: 1721.1/114686 .
  15. ↑ Pokhotelov, D.; Mitchell, C.N.; Spencer, P.S.J; Hairston, M.R.; Heelis, R.A. (2008). "Ionospheric storm time dynamics as seen by GPS tomography and in situ spacecraft observations". J. Geophys. Res. 113 (A3). Bibcode:2008JGRA..113.0A16P. doi: 10.1029/2008JA013109 .
  16. ↑ Pokhotelov D.; et al. (2021). "Polar tongue of ionisation during geomagnetic superstorm". Ann. Geophys. 39 (5): 833–847. Bibcode:2021AnGeo..39..833P. doi: 10.5194/angeo-39-833-2021 .
  17. ↑ Burns, A. G.; Killeen, T. L.; Crowley, G.; Emery, B. A.; Roble, R. G. (1989). "On the mechanisms responsible for high-latitude thermospheric composition variations during the recovery phase of a geomagnetic storm". Journal of Geophysical Research: Space Physics. 94 (A12): 16961–16968. Bibcode:1989JGR....9416961B. doi:10.1029/ja094ia12p16961.
  18. ↑ Piddington, J. H. (1964). "Some Ionospheric Effects of the Solar Wind". IETE Journal of Research. 10 (8): 285–291. doi:10.1080/03772063.1964.11485057.
  19. ↑ Berényi, K.A.; Barta, V.; Kis, Á. (2018). "Midlatitude ionospheric F2-layer response to eruptive solar events-caused geomagnetic disturbances over Hungary during the maximum of the solar cycle 24: A case study". Advances in Space Research. 61 (5): 1230–1243. arXiv: 1803.01847 . Bibcode:2018AdSpR..61.1230B. doi:10.1016/j.asr.2017.12.021. S2CID   119330894.
  20. ↑ "Signing into eresources, The University of Sydney Library" (PDF). login.ezproxy2.library.usyd.edu.au. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-97123-5_4.
  21. ↑ "Ionization Energy and Electronegativity". butane.chem.uiuc.edu. Retrieved 2020-05-28.
  22. 1 2 3 Buonsanto, M.J. (1999). "Signing into eresources, The University of Sydney Library" (PDF). Space Science Reviews. 88 (3/4): 563–601. doi:10.1023/a:1005107532631. S2CID   117314275.
  23. ↑ Choudhury, Abhijit; De, Barin Kumar; Guha, Anirban; Roy, Rakesh (2015). "Long-duration geomagnetic storm effects on the D region of the ionosphere: Some case studies using VLF signal". Journal of Geophysical Research: Space Physics. 120 (1): 778–787. Bibcode:2015JGRA..120..778C. doi: 10.1002/2014JA020738 .
  24. ↑ Renshaw, A.; Abe, Katsushige; Hayato, Y; Iyogi, K; Kameda, J; Kishimoto, Y; Miura, M; Moriyama, Shigetaka; Nakahata, M; Nakano, Y; Nakayama, S (2014). "First Indication of Terrestrial Matter Effects on Solar Neutrino Oscillation". Physical Review Letters. 112 (9): 091805. arXiv: 1312.5176 . Bibcode:2014PhRvL.112i1805R. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.112.091805. PMID   24655245. S2CID   699574.
  25. 1 2 Hill, Geoffrey E. (1963). "HF communication during ionospheric storms". Journal of Research of the National Bureau of Standards Section D. 67D (1): 23. doi: 10.6028/jres.067d.005 .
  26. ↑ "Interference with Radio, TV and Cordless Telephone Signals". Federal Communications Commission. 2011. Retrieved 2020-05-28.
  27. 1 2 3 Impacts of space weather on aviation. West Sussex: Civil Aviation Authority. 2016. pp. 17–24.
  28. ↑ "How the Solar Wind May Affect Weather and Climate". Eos. 15 January 2015. Retrieved 2020-05-28.
  29. ↑ "Do solar storms cause heat waves on Earth? | NOAA Climate.gov". www.climate.gov. Retrieved 2020-05-28.
  30. ↑ Prykryl, P.; Rušin, V. (2023-07-23). "Occurrence of heavy precipitation influenced by solar wind high-speed streams through vertical atmospheric coupling". Frontiers in Astronomy and Space Sciences. 10. doi: 10.3389/fspas.2023.1196231 .
  31. ↑ c=AU; co=Commonwealth of Australia; ou=Department of Sustainability, Environment. "Space Weather Services website". www.sws.bom.gov.au. Retrieved 2020-05-29.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  32. ↑ Marine, D; Miro, G; Mikhailov, A (2000). "A method for foF2 short-term prediction". Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Part C: Solar, Terrestrial & Planetary Science. 25 (4): 327–332. Bibcode:2000PCEC...25..327M. doi:10.1016/S1464-1917(00)00026-X.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.