Jason M. Barr is an American economist and author at Rutgers University-Newark, whose work is in the field of "skynomics", the study of skyscrapers and skylines using modern economics methods.[1][2][3][4] He is the author of Building the Skyline: The Birth and Growth of Manhattan's Skyscrapers, which chronicles the history of the Manhattan skyline from an economic perspective, and Cities in the Sky: The Quest to Build the World's Tallest Skyscrapers, which discusses how and why the world's largest cities are building their skylines.[5][6][7] Barr's work is interdisciplinary and integrates multiple disciplines including urban studies, geography, and economic history. Barr is one of the few academic economists studying the intersection of economics and skyscraper construction.[8][9][10][11][12]
Barr examines the economic forces behind their construction including the interplay between engineering, economic, developer, and symbolic heights. His work investigates why skyscrapers are built to certain heights and the economic rationale behind these decisions.[14][15][16][17] For example, research performed by Barr and his colleagues showed that there was no evidence for the Skyscraper Curse, that the completion of the world's tallest building is a herald of an economic crisis.[18][19] Barr has also debunked the misconception that Manhattan's geological conditions have been the reason there are few skyscrapers between lower Manhattan and Midtown.[20][21][22][23][24] Rather, Barr's work demonstrates that Midtown's origin was due to the city's demographic evolution and the fact that Manhattan is a long, but narrow, island that concentrated economic activity to a much greater degree, as compared to other cities.[25][26]
Barr has also written extensively on zoning in the United States including the role of Robert Moses and the City Planning Commission creating the current NYC zones.[27] His "Building the Skyline: The Birth and Growth of Manhattan's Skyscrapers" provides a detailed analysis of Manhattan’s development, including how Manhattan's shape and land use patterns, advancements in transport, and neighborhood density affected the location and heights of its tall buildings
Barr’s latest book, "Cities in the Sky:The Quest to Build the World's Tallest Skyscrapers"[28] highlights the global race to build the tallest skyscrapers, examining the economic, cultural, political, and technological motivations.[29][30][31] The book begins with the origins of skyscrapers in early 20th-century America, focusing on cities like Chicago and New York. Barr debunks the myth the Home Insurance Building in Chicago was the first skyscraper. He shows that its designation as such was created through a public relations campaign in 1896 by the building's architect, William Le Baron Jenney and his Chicago colleagues, including Daniel H. Burnham.[32] Regarding London's skyscraper history, Barr notes that London initially resisted tall buildings due to both preservationist opposition and lack of need. It wasn't until the 21st century that London saw the rise of modern skyscrapers like the Shard and the Gherkin. Barr contrasts this with the rapid skyscraper development in Hong Kong, which, despite starting later, now has more skyscrapers than Manhattan. Hong Kong's unique land lease system, stemming from its colonial past, has influenced its dense vertical growth, with many skyscrapers serving residential purposes.
The system was later adopted by mainland China, helping to spur an unprecedented skyscraper boom. According to Barr, in the Middle East, Dubai's Burj Khalifa exemplifies skyscraper development driven by consolidated decision-making. Barr argues that skyscrapers create a positive feedback loop for cities, enhancing global connectivity and economic growth. Barr also dunks the myth that the word's tallest buildings are not economically rational. Recording breaking structures are used as part of an economic development strategy that increases tourism, foreign direct investment, and raises property values.[33] However, he also critiques the sustainability of super-tall buildings, advocating for a balance between density and environmental impact. Barr concludes that while skyscrapers can elevate a city's status, their construction must be contextually and economically justified.[34]
New Mannahatta Project
New Mannahatta Project proposed by Jason Barr in 2022
Barr is an advocate of land reclamation projects such as those seen in Hong Kong and the Netherlands. He is also an advocate of Lower Manhattan expansion. On January 14, 2022 Barr wrote an opinion article in the New York Times[35] which proposed the expansion of Manhattan Island.[36][37][38][39]
Barr proposes expanding Manhattan Island by 1,760 acres into New York Harbor to tackle housing affordability and climate change.[citation needed] This new area, named New Mannahatta, would provide housing for nearly 250,000 people and offer significant protection against sea level rise, flooding, and storm surges.[citation needed] Barr’s plan would push vulnerable areas like Wall and Broad Streets inland and incorporate wetlands to absorb storm surges, with land built at higher elevations for added protection.[citation needed]
The new constructions could include diverse housing types and nearly 180,000 new units. Barr highlights the economic feasibility, noting that the high value of New York real estate could fund the project through sales or long-term leases. With 2019 building sales at $1,500 per square foot versus $500 construction costs,[citation needed] the profit could cover land and infrastructure costs. The project would boost ferry routes and real estate tax income, with potential support from federal infrastructure funds.[citation needed]
This "New Mannahatta" project proposal was met with criticism from readers despite the project being quite similar to other already completed projects around the world. Among other academics and city planners Barr's project was met with greater interest.
Legends Tower Project And criticism
The developer, Matteson Capital is proposing "Legends Tower," which would stand at a staggering height of 1,907 feet, making it the tallest building in the United States if completed.[40] The proposal faces skepticism due to concerns about financing, market demand, and the tower's ability to withstand the region's severe weather conditions, including tornadoes.[41] Despite these challenges, the project has garnered attention for its potential to put Oklahoma City on the map and stimulate economic growth in the region.
The proposal to build the "Legends Tower" in Oklahoma City has stirred considerable debate, with economist Jason Barr expressing skepticism. He questions the economic viability of such a project in a city like Oklahoma City, stating, "It would pencil out in New York, it would pencil out in Chicago, but statistically I can’t see it penciling out in Oklahoma City."[citation needed] Barr raises concerns about the project's financing and whether the market demand in Oklahoma City can support the costs associated with constructing such a towering structure. He also doubts the rationale for including an observation deck. [42] Barr's reservations highlight the challenges facing the developers as they seek to bring their ambitious vision to fruition amidst uncertainties about its economic feasibility and practicality in the context of Oklahoma City's urban landscape.
"Building the Skyline" by Jason Barr explores the evolution of Manhattan's iconic skyscrapers, delving into the economic factors shaping their development. Barr considers Manhattan's geological history, influencing early land use and neighborhood formation, such as the dense tenements of Five Points and the Lower East Side. He explains why skyscrapers emerged downtown and later in midtown, debunking geological myths. Instead, he emphasizes economic and demographic forces driving construction patterns. The book highlights innovative urban solutions for accommodating dense populations. Through rigorous investigation, Barr offers insights into urban growth and city life, making "Building the Skyline" a significant contribution to understanding the dynamics of urbanization and architecture.
'Economic Drivers' explores China's economic reforms over the past four decades have spurred immense urban growth, marked by a proliferation of skyscrapers across its cities. While these structures symbolize China's economic prowess, little research has focused on their construction. This report aims to fill this gap by analyzing the economic factors driving skyscraper development in China. Using data from 1980 to 2014 across 74 cities, the study examines how economic incentives, social and political benefits, and city identity contribute to skyscraper construction. Regression models reveal a complex interplay between economic fundamentals and competitive motivations. The findings underscore the economic rationale behind China's skyscraper boom and lay the groundwork for further exploration into their role in urbanization.
Cities in the Sky: The Quest to Build the World's Tallest SkyscrapersSimon & Schuster, 2024 ISBN 978-1982174217
"Cities in the Sky"[43][44] by Jason Barr explores the global phenomenon of skyscraper construction, delving into the motivations, economics, and impact of these towering structures. From iconic landmarks like the Empire State Building to modern marvels such as the Shanghai Tower and the Burj Khalifa, Barr examines the architectural and engineering feats behind each skyscraper. He dispels myths about their origins, discusses the technological advancements driving their proliferation, and analyzes their effects on city skylines and economies. The book covers the evolution of skyscrapers from early American developments to contemporary trends in cities like London, Hong Kong, and Dubai. Barr also addresses the controversies surrounding skyscrapers, including their high costs and environmental impacts. "Cities in the Sky" offers insight into the past, present, and future of urban verticality, appealing to urbanists, architecture enthusiasts, and anyone interested in the evolving landscape of modern cities.
Related Research Articles
A skyscraper is a tall continuously habitable building having multiple floors. Modern sources define skyscrapers as being at least 100 meters (330 ft) or 150 meters (490 ft) in height, though there is no universally accepted definition, other than being very tall high-rise buildings. Skyscrapers may host offices, hotels, residential spaces, and retail spaces.
The Skyscraper Museum is an architecture museum located in Battery Park City, Manhattan, New York City and founded in 1996. As the name suggests, the museum focuses on high-rise buildings as "products of technology, objects of design, sites of construction, investments in real estate, and places of work and residence." The Skyscraper Museum also celebrates the architectural heritage of New York and the forces and people who created New York's skyline. Before moving to the current and permanent location in Battery Park City in 2004, the museum was a nomadic institution, holding pop-up exhibitions in four temporary donated spaces around Lower Manhattan since 1996.
One Court Square, also known as the Citicorp Building or the Citigroup Building, is a 50-story, 673-foot (205 m) office tower in Long Island City, Queens, across the East River from Manhattan in New York City, United States. It was completed in 1989 and designed by Skidmore, Owings & Merrill for Citigroup. The building was the tallest in Queens from its completion until the topping out of Skyline Tower in 2019, and for many years was the only skyscraper in Long Island City. It is now home to telecommunications firm Altice USA, whose logo adorns the top of the building, among other tenants.
The building form most closely associated with New York City is the skyscraper, which has shifted many commercial and residential districts from low-rise to high-rise. Surrounded mostly by water, the city has amassed one of the largest and most varied collection of skyscrapers in the world.
Manhattanization is a neologism coined to describe the construction of many tall or densely situated buildings, which transforms the appearance and character of a city to what is similar to Manhattan, the most densely populated borough of New York City. It was a pejorative word used by critics of the highrise buildings built in San Francisco during the 1960s and 1970s, who claimed the skyscrapers would block views of the bay and the surrounding hills. With careful urban planning, the phenomenon became more accepted in time. The term also gained usage as a buzzword for high-density developments in Las Vegas, Los Angeles, Dubai, and Miami in the early 2000s and again in the 2010s. Another example is the high rise development in Toronto since 2007, as well as rapid development of skyscrapers in Hong Kong and Tokyo since the 1970s, eventually allowing Hong Kong to possess more skyscrapers than New York. The term has even been applied to many smaller US cities that have seen a large spike in downtown high rise rental buildings since the 21st century.
56 Leonard Street is an 821 ft-tall (250 m), 57-story skyscraper on Leonard Street in the neighborhood of Tribeca in Manhattan, New York City. The building was designed by the Swiss architecture firm Herzog & de Meuron, which describes the building as "houses stacked in the sky." It is the tallest structure in Tribeca.
The Devon Energy Center is a 50-story corporate skyscraper in downtown Oklahoma City, Oklahoma. It is the tallest building in the city and state, though it has fewer floors than the 52-story BOK Tower in Tulsa. It is tied with Park Tower in Chicago as the 72nd tallest building in the United States; at its completion Devon Tower was tied as the 39th tallest. Construction began October 6, 2009, and was completed in October 2012. The tower is located next to the historic Colcord Hotel, which Devon currently owns, on Sheridan Avenue between Hudson and Robinson Avenues.
The Skyscraper Index is a concept put forward by Andrew Lawrence, a property analyst at Dresdner Kleinwort Wasserstein, in January 1999, which showed that the world's tallest buildings have risen on the eve of economic downturns. Business cycles and skyscraper construction correlate in such a way that investment in skyscrapers peaks when cyclical growth is exhausted and the economy is ready for recession. Mark Thornton's Skyscraper Index Model successfully predicted the Great Recession at the beginning of August 2007.
Skyline Tower, previously known as Court Square City View Tower, is a residential skyscraper in the Long Island City neighborhood of Queens in New York City. The building topped out in October 2019, surpassing One Court Square to become the tallest building in Queens at 762 feet (232 m). For two years, it was also the tallest building on Long Island; in October 2021, the building was surpassed in height when the Brooklyn Tower topped out. It was completed in July 2021.
The uptown trend of Manhattan, allegorized as an inexorable parade of destiny on its "march uptown", refers to the northward socioeconomic real estate trend toward Uptown, a long-standing historical pattern from the 17th to the 20th centuries. Beginning with New Amsterdam at the island's southern tip, European colonial and later American settlement under the Commissioners' Plan of 1811 expanded continually in a common direction.
520 Fifth Avenue is a mixed-use supertall building under construction at Fifth Avenue and 43rd Street in the Midtown Manhattan neighborhood of New York City. The building occupies the former site of three structures. Mickey Rabina is developing the building, and architectural firm Kohn Pedersen Fox designed the structure and serves as architect of record. The interior design is by Charles & Co.
Legends Tower is an approved supertall skyscraper to be built in the Bricktown entertainment district of Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, United States. The 134-story building would stand 1,907 feet (581 m) tall, a reference to Oklahoma's admission to the Union in 1907. Developed by real estate firm Matteson Capital and architecture firm AO, Legends Tower would be the centerpiece of the planned mixed-use development The Boardwalk at Bricktown.
Mohawk skywalkers is a nickname for Mohawk ironworkers and other construction workers who have helped construct buildings and bridges in American and Canadian cities including New York City, Chicago, Philadelphia, San Francisco, Detroit, Toronto, Vancouver, and Montreal. Mohawk workers have contributed to the construction of iconic structures across North America including the Empire State Building, the Chrysler Building, Sears Tower, the CN Tower, the Brooklyn Bridge, the Golden Gate Bridge, the San Francisco Bay Bridge, the George Washington Bridge, the United Nations Building, and the Twin Towers. Mohawk volunteers and workers contributed to both rescue efforts at Ground Zero and the rebuilding of the new World Trade Center.
↑ Barr, Jason M. Cities in the Sky: The Quest to Build the World’s Tallest Skyscrapers. (2024). Scribner Books. Website: https://www.citiesintheskybook.com/
↑ Barr, Jason and Jedwab, Remi. “Exciting, Boring, and Non-Existent Skylines: Vertical Building Gaps in Global Perspective.” (2023). Real Estate Economics, 51, 1512-1526.
↑ Jedwab, Remi, Barr, Jason and Brueckner, Jan K. “Cities Without Skylines: Worldwide Building-Height Gaps and their Possible Determinants and Implications” (2022). Journal of Urban Economics, 132.
↑ Ahlfedlt, Gabriel and Barr, Jason. “The Economics of Skyscrapers: A Synthesis.” (2022). Journal of Urban Economics, 129 (with G. Ahlfeldt)
↑ Barr, Jason and Luo, Jingshu. “Growing Skylines: The Economic Determinants of Skyscrapers in China.” (2021). Journal of Real Estate Finance and Economics. 63(2), 210-248.
↑ Barr, Jason. “A ‘Radical Departure’? How The Home Insurance Building Won the ‘First Skyscraper’ Debate.” (2024). International Journal of High-rise Buildings, 13(1), 1-9.
↑ Barr, Jason M. Cities in the Sky: The Quest to Build the World’s Tallest Skyscrapers. (2024). Scribner Books. Website: https://www.citiesintheskybook.com/.
↑ Barr, Jason M. Cities in the Sky: The Quest to Build the World’s Tallest Skyscrapers. (2024). Scribner Books. Website: https://www.citiesintheskybook.com/
↑ Barr, Jason and Weismantle, Peter. “The Economics of Record-Breaking Height.” (2023). CTBUH Journal, 1, 36-43.
↑ Barrett, Joe. "The $1.6 Billion Quest to Build America's Tallest Skyscraper in…Oklahoma". WSJ. Retrieved 2024-06-05
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