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Racial segregation is the systematic separation of people into racial or other ethnic groups in daily life. Racial segregation can amount to the international crime of apartheid and a crime against humanity under the Statute of the International Criminal Court. Segregation can involve the spatial separation of the races,and mandatory use of different institutions,such as schools and hospitals by people of different races. Specifically,it may be applied to activities such as eating in restaurants,drinking from water fountains,using public toilets,attending schools,going to movies,riding buses,renting or purchasing homes or renting hotel rooms. In addition,segregation often allows close contact between members of different racial or ethnic groups in hierarchical situations,such as allowing a person of one race to work as a servant for a member of another race.
The American Civil Rights Movement was a political movement and campaign from 1954 to 1968 in the United States to abolish institutional racial segregation,discrimination,and disenfranchisement throughout the United States. The movement has its origins in the Reconstruction era during the late 19th century,although it made its largest legislative gains in the mid-1960s after years of direct actions and grassroots protests. The social movement's major nonviolent resistance and civil disobedience campaigns eventually secured new protections in federal law for the civil rights of all Americans.
Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka,347 U.S. 483 (1954),was a landmark decision of the U.S. Supreme Court in which the Court ruled that U.S. state laws establishing racial segregation in public schools are unconstitutional,even if the segregated schools are otherwise equal in quality. The Court's decision partially overruled its 1896 decision Plessy v. Ferguson,declaring that the "separate but equal" notion was unconstitutional for American public schools and educational facilities. It paved the way for integration and was a major victory of the civil rights movement,and a model for many future impact litigation cases.
A ghetto,often the ghetto,is a part of a city in which members of a minority group live,especially as a result of political,social,legal,environmental or economic pressure. Ghettos are often known for being more impoverished than other areas of the city. Versions of the ghetto appear across the world,each with their own names,classifications,and groupings of people.
Separate but equal was a legal doctrine in United States constitutional law,according to which racial segregation did not necessarily violate the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution,which nominally guaranteed "equal protection" under the law to all people. Under the doctrine,as long as the facilities provided to each "race" were equal,state and local governments could require that services,facilities,public accommodations,housing,medical care,education,employment,and transportation be segregated by "race",which was already the case throughout the states of the former Confederacy. The phrase was derived from a Louisiana law of 1890,although the law actually used the phrase "equal but separate".
Race-integration busing in the United States was the practice of assigning and transporting students to schools within or outside their local school districts in an effort to diversify the racial make-up of schools. While the 1954 U.S. Supreme Court landmark decision in Brown v. Board of Education declared racial segregation in public schools unconstitutional,many American schools continue to remain largely uni-racial due to housing inequality. In an effort to address the ongoing de facto segregation in schools,the 1971 Supreme Court decision,Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education,ruled that the federal courts could use busing as a further integration tool to achieve racial balance.
Charles Hamilton Houston was a prominent African-American lawyer,Dean of Howard University Law School,and NAACP first special counsel,or Litigation Director. A graduate of Amherst College and Harvard Law School,Houston played a significant role in dismantling Jim Crow laws,especially attacking segregation in schools and racial housing covenants. He earned the title "The Man Who Killed Jim Crow".
Sir John Logan Campbell was a prominent Scottish-born New Zealand public figure. He was described by his contemporaries as "the father of Auckland".
California Proposition 14 was a November 1964 initiative ballot proposition that amended the California state constitution to nullify the 1963 Rumford Fair Housing Act,thereby allowing property sellers,landlords and their agents to openly discriminate on ethnic grounds when selling or letting accommodations,as they had been permitted to before 1963. The proposition became law after receiving support from 65% of voters. In 1966,the California Supreme Court in a 5-2 split decision declared Proposition 14 unconstitutional under the equal protection clause of the United States Constitution. The U.S. Supreme Court affirmed that decision in 1967 in Reitman v. Mulkey.
The history of African Americans in Chicago dates back to Jean Baptiste Point du Sable’s trading activities in the 1780s. Du Sable,the city's founder,was Haitian of African and French descent. Fugitive slaves and freedmen established the city's first black community in the 1840s. By the late 19th century,the first black person had been elected to office.
Racial segregation in the United States is the segregation of facilities and services such as housing,medical care,education,employment,and transportation in the United States along racial lines. The term mainly refers to the legally or socially enforced separation of African Americans from whites,but it is also used with regard to the separation of other ethnic minorities from majority mainstream communities. While mainly referring to the physical separation and provision of separate facilities,it can also refer to other manifestations such as prohibitions against interracial marriage,and the separation of roles within an institution. Notably,in the United States Armed Forces up until 1948,black units were typically separated from white units but were still led by white officers.
Murphysboro is a city in and the county seat of Jackson County,Illinois,United States. The population was 7,093 at the 2020 census. The city is part of the Metro Lakeland area. The mayor of Murphysboro is Will Stephens. The government consists of the mayor and 10 city aldermen.
African Americans in Omaha,Nebraska are central to the development and growth of the 43rd largest city in the United States. The first free black settler in the city arrived in 1854,the year the city was incorporated. In 1894 black residents of Omaha organized the first fair in the United States for African-American exhibitors and attendees. The 2000 US Census recorded 51,910 African Americans as living in Omaha. In the 19th century,the growing city of Omaha attracted ambitious people making new lives,such as Dr. Matthew Ricketts and Silas Robbins. Dr. Ricketts was the first African American to graduate from a Nebraska college or university. Silas Robbins was the first African American to be admitted to the bar in Nebraska. In 1892 Dr. Ricketts was also the first African American to be elected to the Nebraska State Legislature. Ernie Chambers,an African-American barber from North Omaha's 11th District,became the longest serving state senator in Nebraska history in 2005 after serving in the unicameral for more than 35 years.
Housing segregation in the United States is the practice of denying African Americans and other minority groups equal access to housing through the process of misinformation,denial of realty and financing services,and racial steering. Housing policy in the United States has influenced housing segregation trends throughout history. Key legislation include the National Housing Act of 1934,the G.I. Bill,and the Fair Housing Act. Factors such as socioeconomic status,spatial assimilation,and immigration contribute to perpetuating housing segregation. The effects of housing segregation include relocation,unequal living standards,and poverty. However,there have been initiatives to combat housing segregation,such as the Section 8 housing program.
Housing discrimination in the United States refers to the historical and current barriers,policies,and biases that prevent equitable access to housing. Housing discrimination became more pronounced after the abolition of slavery in 1865,typically as part of Jim Crow laws that enforced racial segregation. The federal government began to take action against these laws in 1917,when the Supreme Court struck down ordinances prohibiting blacks from occupying or owning buildings in majority-white neighborhoods in Buchanan v. Warley. However,the federal government as well as local governments continued to be directly responsible for housing discrimination through redlining and race-restricted covenants until the Civil Rights Act of 1968.
Racial inequality in the United States identifies the social inequality and advantages and disparities that affect different races within the United States. These can also be seen as a result of historic oppression,inequality of inheritance,or racism and prejudice,especially against minority groups.
School segregation in the United States (US) is the separation of students based on their race to the extent that an institution can be racially predominant by black students or white students. Currently more than half of all students in the United States attend school distracts with high racial concentration and about 40% of black students attend schools where 90%-100% of students are non-white. School racial segregation is worst in the northeastern U.S.
This is a timeline of the 1947 to 1968 civil rights movement in the United States,a nonviolent mid-20th century freedom movement to gain legal equality and the enforcement of constitutional rights for People of Color. The goals of the movement included securing equal protection under the law,ending legally-established racial discrimination,and gaining equal access to public facilities,education reform,fair housing,and the ability to vote.
Trevon D'Marcus Logan is an American economist. He is the Hazel C. Youngberg Trustees Distinguished Professor in the Department of Economics and Associate Dean of the College of Arts and Sciences at Ohio State University,where he was awarded the 2014 Alumni Award for Distinguished Teaching. He is also a Research Associate at the National Bureau of Economic Research. In 2014,he was the youngest-ever president of the National Economic Association. In 2019,he was the inaugural North Hall Economics Professor at the University of California,Santa Barbara. In 2020,he was named the inaugural director of the National Bureau of Economic Research Working Group on Race and Stratification in the Economy. His research mainly focuses on economic history,including studies of African American migration,economic analysis of illegal markets,the economics of marriage transfers,and measures of historical living standards,with an emphasis on racial disparities in the United States.
Housing in Washington,D.C., encompasses a variety of shelter types:apartments,single family homes,condominiums,co-ops,and apartments considered public housing. Washington,D.C.,is considered one of the most expensive cities in which to live in the United States —in 2019,it was ranked in the top 10 of American cities with the most expensive homes.
References
- ↑ "John R. Logan". Library of Congress Name Authority File. Retrieved May 20, 2019.
- ↑ "John Logan". Population Studies and Training Center. Brown University. Retrieved May 20, 2019.
- ↑ Williams, Joseph P. (April 20, 2018). "Segregation's Legacy". U.S. News & World Report. Retrieved May 20, 2019.
- ↑ Greenberg, Zoe (January 27, 2017). "Advocates of Fair Housing Brace for a Tough Four Years". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331 . Retrieved May 20, 2019.
- ↑ "Segregation in America: 'Dragging On and On'". NPR. February 18, 2011. Retrieved May 20, 2019.
