Joseph Richard Pawlik

Last updated
Joseph Richard Pawlik
PawlikHeadShot201205.jpg
Born
Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States
Nationality American
Alma mater University of Minnesota
Scripps Institution of Oceanography
University of California, San Diego
Known forEcology of sponges on Caribbean reefs
Scientific career
Fields Zoology
Marine Biology
Chemical Ecology
Institutions University of North Carolina Wilmington
Doctoral advisor D. John Faulkner
Nicholas D. Holland

Joseph Richard Pawlik is a marine biologist. He is the Frank Hawkins Kenan Distinguished Professor of Marine Biology [1] in the Department of Biology and Marine Biology at the University of North Carolina Wilmington. He is best known for studies of sponges on Caribbean coral reefs that reveal ecological principles such as resource trade-offs, trophic cascades and indirect effects.

Contents

Early life and education

Pawlik was born in Minneapolis, Minnesota to Richard Joseph Pawlik and Shirley Joyce (Reed) Pawlik as the third of 4 children. He credits his early childhood interest in marine biology to watching public television broadcasts of The Undersea World of Jacques Cousteau . [2] He was raised in the City of St. Anthony Village, a suburb northeast of Minneapolis and graduated in 1978 from St. Anthony Village High School. [3] In 1982, he graduated with a BS degree in Biological Sciences from the University of Minnesota, Twin Cities [4] after taking summer courses his sophomore and junior years at the Bermuda Biological Station for Research, now BIOS.

Work

The vicious circle hypothesis for the lack of recovery of Caribbean coral reefs. The major component of the hypothesis is a feedback loop between sponges, which consume dissolved organic carbon and release plant nutrients, and seaweeds, which consume nutrients and release dissolved organic carbon. Viciouscirclehypothesis.jpg
The vicious circle hypothesis for the lack of recovery of Caribbean coral reefs. The major component of the hypothesis is a feedback loop between sponges, which consume dissolved organic carbon and release plant nutrients, and seaweeds, which consume nutrients and release dissolved organic carbon.

Pawlik did his graduate research on the chemical cues that cause the planktonic larvae of marine invertebrates to metamorphose into sessile adults, focusing on sandcastle worms, a group of annelid worms that build tubes of sand that can form reefs. [5] In collaboration with the natural products chemists in the laboratories of his mentors, D. John Faulkner and William Fenical, he began working on the chemical defenses of marine invertebrates, including limpets, [6] gorgonian corals, [7] and sea slugs. [8] [9] At UNCW, Pawlik began working on the chemical defenses of sponges on Caribbean reefs, [10] a project that was funded by the National Science Foundation for over 23 years. With his students and collaborators, Pawlik characterized the chemical defenses of over 100 species of sponges across the Caribbean, and discovered a resource trade-off between the production of defensive secondary metabolites versus growth or reproduction among sponge species. [11] Originally demonstrated with manipulative experiments, [12] the resource-trade off was subsequently validated in surveys across the Caribbean by targeting reefs that were intensively overfished versus those that had been protected from fishing. [13] On overfished Caribbean reefs, the absence of sponge predators resulted in the overgrowth of reef-building corals by fast growing, chemically undefended sponge species, [14] providing unambiguous evidence to support fishing restrictions to protect coral reefs.

Most recently, Pawlik and colleagues have integrated the chemical defense-based ecosystem model with evidence of increasing sponge abundance [15] and new data on carbon and nutrient cycling by sponges [16] [17] to propose the “vicious circle hypothesis” to explain the lack of resilience of Caribbean coral reefs relative to reefs in the Indo-Pacific. [18] Sponge chemical defense data have also been used to suggest that much larger populations of hawksbill turtles once kept sponge growth in check on Caribbean reefs before turtles and turtle eggs were overharvested after European discovery and exploitation since the 1500s. [19] This concept has been supported by analyses of sponge spicules from reef cores off Panama. [20]

Honors

Scientific debates

Pawlik behind a Caribbean giant barrel sponge, Xestospongia muta, on which his research group has published extensively. PawlikUW2.jpg
Pawlik behind a Caribbean giant barrel sponge, Xestospongia muta, on which his research group has published extensively.

Pawlik is a proponent of critical rationalism for the advancement of science; he discusses the concept in the courses he teaches [23] and has openly challenged the conclusions of other studies throughout his career.

As a graduate student he contested the claim that neurotransmitters were related to the natural inducers of marine invertebrate larval settlement, arguing that the results of still-water, laboratory experiments with bioactive compounds were artifacts and not ecologically relevant. [24] [25]

Along with collaborators, he has challenged the idea that sponges of the genus Aplysina protect themselves with “activated” chemical defenses. [26] [27]

Among marine invertebrates, such as nudibranch molluscs, he has found little evidence for optimized chemical defense strategies, warning coloration, or mimicry. [28]

More recently, Pawlik and colleagues have challenged the claim that sponge communities on Caribbean reefs are primarily controlled by bottom-up factors (food availability), instead asserting that community structure is primarily a product of top-down control (due to predation). [29] [30]

Related to food availability, he has also contested the "sponge increase hypothesis" (SIH) which contends that sponge abundance increases with depth through the mesophotic zone on tropical reefs. [31] [32] Pawlik and colleagues used photographs from ROV surveys of 3 Caribbean reefs to show the opposite trend in sponge abundance. [33] Proponents of the SIH responded by dismissing all benthic abundance data derived from photographs on the grounds that they were affected by optical distortion, but this criticism was strongly refuted. [34]

Pawlik and colleagues have found no evidence for an important component of the "sponge-loop hypothesis;" specifically, that large, emergent sponges on coral reefs produce large quantities of detritus that becomes food for particle-feeding invertebrates. [35] [36] They have also found no evidence that sponges with low microbial biomass consume dissolved organic material (DOM) from seawater. [35] [37]

Videography

Pawlik has been an amateur underwater photographer since the 1980s, but recently turned to video to capture the current state of coral reef environments and to provide outreach related to his scientific publications. His videos are posted on YouTube at the channel “Pawlik Lab." Two short videos, “Sponges of the Caribbean" [38] and “The maid did it!" [39] were finalists in the Ocean 180 video challenge, [40] a science video outreach competition sponsored by the National Science Foundation, in 2015 and 2016, respectively.

In a 2020 video, "Requiem for a Caribbean Reef", [41] he captured the state of the coral reef off the West coast of the Turks and Caicos Islands after a 6 month period of bleaching and disease that had killed most of the living corals on the fore-reef between 5 and 30 m depth.

His YouTube channel also hosts archival underwater cinematography of coral reefs off the coasts of Cuba [42] and the Florida Keys [43] [44] from the 1970s and 1980s before the widespread loss of coral cover.

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sponge</span> Animals of the phylum Porifera

Sponges, the members of the phylum Porifera, are a basal animal clade as a sister of the diploblasts. They are multicellular organisms that have bodies full of pores and channels allowing water to circulate through them, consisting of jelly-like mesohyl sandwiched between two thin layers of cells.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Coral reef</span> Outcrop of rock in the sea formed by the growth and deposit of stony coral skeletons

A coral reef is an underwater ecosystem characterized by reef-building corals. Reefs are formed of colonies of coral polyps held together by calcium carbonate. Most coral reefs are built from stony corals, whose polyps cluster in groups.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nudibranch</span> Order of gastropods

Nudibranchs are a group of soft-bodied marine gastropod molluscs that shed their shells after their larval stage. They are noted for their often extraordinary colours and striking forms, and they have been given colourful nicknames to match, such as "clown", "marigold", "splendid", "dancer", "dragon", and "sea rabbit". Currently, about 3,000 valid species of nudibranchs are known.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Parrotfish</span> Family of fishes

Parrotfishes are a group of about 90 fish species regarded as a family (Scaridae), or a subfamily (Scarinae) of the wrasses. With about 95 species, this group's largest species richness is in the Indo-Pacific. They are found in coral reefs, rocky coasts, and seagrass beds, and can play a significant role in bioerosion.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Aposematism</span> Honest signalling of an animals powerful defences

Aposematism is the advertising by an animal to potential predators that it is not worth attacking or eating. This unprofitability may consist of any defences which make the prey difficult to kill and eat, such as toxicity, venom, foul taste or smell, sharp spines, or aggressive nature. These advertising signals may take the form of conspicuous coloration, sounds, odours, or other perceivable characteristics. Aposematic signals are beneficial for both predator and prey, since both avoid potential harm.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Alcyonacea</span> Order of octocorals that do not produce massive calcium carbonate skeletons

Alcyonacea,, are an order of corals. In addition to the fleshy soft corals, the order Alcyonacea now contains all species previously known as "gorgonian corals", that produce a more or less hard skeleton, though quite different from "true" corals (Scleractinia). These can be found in suborders Holaxonia, Scleraxonia, and Stolonifera. They are sessile colonial cnidarians that are found throughout the oceans of the world, especially in the deep sea, polar waters, tropics and subtropics. Common names for subsets of this order are sea fans and sea whips; others are similar to the sea pens of related order Pennatulacea. Individual tiny polyps form colonies that are normally erect, flattened, branching, and reminiscent of a fan. Others may be whiplike, bushy, or even encrusting. A colony can be several feet high and across, but only a few inches thick. They may be brightly coloured, often purple, red, or yellow. Photosynthetic gorgonians can be successfully kept in captive aquaria.

Marine larval ecology is the study of the factors influencing dispersing larvae, which many marine invertebrates and fishes have. Marine animals with a larva typically release many larvae into the water column, where the larvae develop before metamorphosing into adults.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Spongivore</span>

A spongivore is an animal anatomically and physiologically adapted to eating animals of the phylum Porifera, commonly called sea sponges, for the main component of its diet. As a result of their diet, spongivore animals like the hawksbill turtle have developed sharp, narrow bird-like beak that allows them to reach within crevices on the reef to obtain sponges.

<i>Agelas clathrodes</i> Species of sponge

Agelas clathrodes, also known as the orange elephant ear sponge, is a species of sea sponge. It lives on reefs in the Caribbean, usually more than 10 metres (33 ft) below the surface of the ocean. It takes various forms, and its color is reddish orange.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Giant barrel sponge</span> Species of sponge

The giant barrel sponge is the largest species of sponge found growing on Caribbean coral reefs. It is common at depths greater than 10 metres (33 ft) down to 120 metres (390 ft) and can reach a diameter of 1.8 metres. It is typically brownish-red to brownish-gray in color, with a hard or stony texture. The giant barrel sponge has been called the "redwood of the reef" because of its size and estimated lifespan of hundreds to a thousand or more years. It is perhaps the best-studied species of sponge in the sea; a population on Conch Reef, in the Florida Keys, has been monitored and studied since 1997.

<i>Amphimedon compressa</i> Species of sponge

Amphimedon compressa, the erect rope sponge, red tree sponge, red tubular sponge, or red sponge is a demosponge found in southern Florida, the Caribbean Sea, and the Bahamas. It can be deep red, orange, brown, or black.

<i>Callyspongia aculeata</i> Species of sponge

Callyspongia (Cladochalina) aculeata, commonly known as the branching vase sponge is a species of Porifora, meaning sea sponge, in the family Callyspongiidae. Poriferans are typically characterized by ostia, pores that filter out plankton, with an osculum as the opening which water leaves through, and choanocytes trap food particles.

<i>Ancylomenes pedersoni</i> Species of crustacean

Ancylomenes pedersoni, sometimes known as Pederson's shrimp and Pederson's cleaner shrimp, is a species of cleaner shrimp. It is part of the genus Ancylomenes and was described in 1958 by Fenner A. Chace Jr. as Periclimenes pedersoni. Ancylomenes pedersoni is found in the Caribbean Sea, often associated with a sea anemone, at depths of 1 to 15 metres. They are often found on the reefs off Bermuda.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Orange knobby star</span> Species of starfish

The orange knobby star, Echinaster echinophorus, is a species of sea star found in the Caribbean Sea and along the Atlantic coast of South America.

<i>Pterois</i> Genus of venomous fish

Pterois is a genus of venomous marine fish, commonly known as lionfish, native to the Indo-Pacific. It is characterized by conspicuous warning coloration with red or black bands, and ostentatious fins with venomous spines. Pterois radiata, Pterois volitans, and Pterois miles are the most commonly studied species in the genus. Pterois species are popular aquarium fish. P. volitans and P. miles are recent and significant invasive species in the west Atlantic, Caribbean Sea and Mediterranean Sea.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mesophotic coral reef</span>

A Mesophotic coral reef or mesophotic coral ecosystem (MCE), originally from the Latin word meso (meaning middle) and photic (meaning light), is characterised by the presence of both light-dependent coral and algae, and organisms that can be found in water with low light penetration. Mesophotic Coral Ecosystem (MCEs) is a new, widely-adopted term used to refer to mesophotic coral reefs, as opposed to other similar terms like "deep coral reef communities" and "twilight zone", since those terms sometimes are confused due to their unclear, interchangeable nature.

Valerie J. Paul is the Director of the Smithsonian Marine Station at Fort Pierce, in Fort Pierce, FL since 2002 and the Head Scientist of the Chemical Ecology Program. She is interested in marine chemical ecology, and specializes in researching the ecology and chemistry of Cyanobacteria, blue-green algae, blooms. She has been a fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science since 1996, and was the chairperson of the Marine Natural Products Gordon Research Conference in 2000.

Julia Kubanek is a Professor in the Schools of Biological Sciences and of Chemistry & Biochemistry and Associate Dean for research in the College of Sciences at the Georgia Institute of Technology. She is also Co-Director of the Aquatic Chemical Ecology Center and member of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the American Chemical Society, the Association for the Sciences of Limnology and Oceanography, the International Society of Chemical Ecology, the International Society for the Study of Harmful Algae and the American Association of Underwater Science

Dysidea etheria, commonly known as the ethereal sponge or heavenly sponge, is a species of lobate sponge within the class Demospongiae. This marine sponge is known for its light blue color and can be found in the Caribbean as well as off the coasts of Florida and Georgia. Like all other poriferans, D. etheria is capable of both sexual and asexual reproduction. The use of spicule collection as well as chemical defenses allows D. etheria to protect itself against predators such as the zebra doris and the orange knobby star. D. etheria is also known as a host species of the invasive brittle star Ophiothela mirabilis. Lastly, various molecular biology studies have utilized D. etheria to both study foreign particle transport in sponges and to isolate novel molecules.

<i>Pseudoceratina</i> Genus of sponges

Pseudoceratina is a genus of sponge within the family Pseudoceratinidae. They are characterized by possession of a dendritic fiber skeleton lacking laminar bark but containing pith. They have been found in a variety of habitats including the Great Barrier reef, the Red Sea, and Jamaica. Sponges of this genus have a microbiome known to produce a variety of chemicals that are used in pharmaceutical and anti-fouling activities. Notably, a species in this genus produces a chemical that is effective in inhibiting the migration of metastatic breast cancer cells.

References

  1. ↑ O'Neal, Christina (2017-08-29). "UNCW professor receives distinguished award". WilmingtonBiz. Retrieved 2022-04-12.
  2. ↑ Pawlik, J.R. (2017). "About the Pawlik Lab YouTube Channel". YouTube .
  3. ↑ Bucko, T., Beaubien, S., Berg, J., Yurek, L.A., Johnsen, D., Jasinski, S., Plotnik, R. (1978). Villager 1978: Memories and Photographs, the St. Anthony Village High School Yearbook. Volume 17.
  4. ↑ Pawlik, J.R. (2017). "Curriculum Vitae".
  5. ↑ Pawlik, J.R. (1986). "Chemical induction of larval settlement and metamorphosis in the reef-building tube worm Phragmatopoma californica (Polychaeta: Sabellariidae). Marine Biology, 91: 59-68" (PDF).
  6. ↑ Pawlik, J.R., Albizati, K.F., Faulkner D.J. (1986). "Evidence of a defensive role for limatulone, a novel triterpene from the intertidal limpet Collisella limatula. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 30: 251-260" (PDF).
  7. ↑ Pawlik, J.R., Burch, M.T., Fenical W. (1987). "Patterns of chemical defense among Caribbean gorgonian corals: a preliminary survey. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, 108: 55-66" (PDF).
  8. ↑ Pawlik, J.R., Kernan, M.R., Molinski, T.F., Harper, M.K., Faulkner D.J. (1988). "Defensive chemicals of the Spanish Dancer nudibranch, Hexabranchus sanguineus, and its egg ribbons: Macrolides derived from a sponge diet. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, 119: 99-109" (PDF).
  9. ↑ Pawlik, J.R., Kernan, M.R., Molinski, T.F., Harper, M.K., Faulkner, D.J. (1990). "Secondary metabolites of the chemically rich ascoglossan Cyerce nigricans. Experientia, 46: 327-329" (PDF).
  10. ↑ Pawlik, J.R., Chanas, B., Toonen, R.J., Fenical, W (1995). "Defenses of Caribbean sponges against predatory reef fish: I. Chemical deterrency. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 127: 183-19" (PDF).
  11. ↑ Pawlik, J.R. (2011). "The chemical ecology of sponges on Caribbean reefs: Natural products shape natural systems. BioScience, 61: 888-898" (PDF).
  12. ↑ Leong, W., and Pawlik, J.R. (2010). "Evidence of a resource trade-off between growth and chemical defenses among Caribbean coral reef sponges. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 406: 71-78" (PDF).
  13. ↑ Loh, T.-L., and Pawlik, J.R. (2014). "Chemical defenses and resource trade-offs structure sponge communities on Caribbean coral reefs. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 111: 4151-4156" (PDF).
  14. ↑ Loh, T.-L., McMurray, S.E., Henkel, T.P., Vicente, J. and Pawlik, J.R. (2015). "Indirect effects of overfishing on Caribbean reefs: sponges overgrow reef-building corals. PeerJ, 3: e901". PeerJ. 3: e901. doi:10.7717/peerj.901. PMC   4419544 . PMID   25945305.
  15. ↑ McMurray, Steven E.; Finelli, Christopher M.; Pawlik, Joseph R. (2015). "Population dynamics of giant barrel sponges on Florida coral reefs" (PDF). Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology. 473: 73–80. doi: 10.1016/j.jembe.2015.08.007 .
  16. ↑ de Goeij, JM; van Oevelen, D; Vermeij, MJ; Osinga, R; Middelburg, JJ; de Goeij, AF; Admiraal, W (2013). "Surviving in a marine desert: The sponge loop retains resources within coral reefs". Science. 342 (6154): 108–110. Bibcode:2013Sci...342..108D. doi:10.1126/science.1241981. PMID   24092742. S2CID   6720678.
  17. ↑ McMurray, Steven E.; Johnson, Zackary I.; Hunt, Dana E.; Pawlik, Joseph R.; Finelli, Christopher M. (2016). "Selective feeding by the giant barrel sponge enhances foraging efficiency" (PDF). Limnology and Oceanography. 61 (4): 1271–1286. Bibcode:2016LimOc..61.1271M. doi: 10.1002/lno.10287 .
  18. ↑ Pawlik, Joseph R.; Burkepile, Deron E.; Vega Thurber, Rebecca (2016). "A vicious circle? Altered carbon and nutrient cycling may explain the low resilience of Caribbean coral reefs" (PDF). BioScience. 66 (6): 470–476. doi: 10.1093/biosci/biw047 .
  19. ↑ Pawlik, Joseph R.; Loh, Tse-Lynn; McMurray, Steven E. (2018-01-31). "A review of bottom-up vs. top-down control of sponges on Caribbean fore-reefs: what's old, what's new, and future directions". PeerJ. 6: e4343. doi:10.7717/peerj.4343. ISSN   2167-8359. PMC   5797447 . PMID   29404224.
  20. ↑ Łukowiak, Magdalena; Cramer, Katie L.; Madzia, Daniel; Hynes, Michael G.; Norris, Richard D.; O'Dea, Aaron (2018-08-09). "Historical change in a Caribbean reef sponge community and long-term loss of sponge predators". Marine Ecology Progress Series. 601: 127–137. Bibcode:2018MEPS..601..127L. doi: 10.3354/meps12694 . ISSN   0171-8630. S2CID   54704184.
  21. ↑ Krug, PJ; Vendetti, JE; Valdés, Á (2017). "Molecular and morphological systematics of Elysia Risso, 1818 (Heterobranchia: Sacoglossa) from the Caribbean region". Zootaxa. 4148 (1): 1–137. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.4148.1.1. PMID   27515641.
  22. ↑ "National Science Foundation Presidential Young Investigator Award". 1991.
  23. ↑ Pawlik, J.R. (2017). "BIO 501 Syllabus – Introduction to Science as a Profession. University of North Carolina Wilmington" (PDF).
  24. ↑ Pawlik, J.R. (1990). "Natural and artificial induction of metamorphosis of Phragmatopoma lapidosa californica (Polychaeta: Sabellariidae), with a critical look at the effects of bioactive compounds on marine invertebrate larvae. Bulletin of Marine Science, 46: 512-536" (PDF).
  25. ↑ Pawlik, J.R. (1992). "Chemical Ecology of the Settlement of Benthic Marine Invertebrates. Oceanography and Marine Biology: An Annual Review, 30: 273-335" (PDF).
  26. ↑ Puyana, M., Fenical, W., and Pawlik, J.R. (2003). "Are there activated chemical defenses in sponges of the genus Aplysina from the Caribbean? Marine Ecology Progress Series, 246: 127-135" (PDF).
  27. ↑ Puyana, M., Pawlik, J.R., Blum, J., Fenical, W. (2015). "Metabolite variability in Caribbean sponges of the genus Aplysina. Brazilian Journal of Pharmacognosy, 25: 592-599" (PDF).{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  28. ↑ Pawlik, J.R. (2012). "Antipredatory defensive roles of natural products from marine invertebrates. Chapter 12, pages 677-710 in Handbook of Marine Natural Products. Edited by: Fattorusso, E., Gerwick, W.H., Taglialatela-Scafati, O. Springer Science, NY" (PDF).
  29. ↑ Pawlik, J.R., McMurray, S.E., Erwin, P. and Zea, S. (2015). "A review of evidence for food-limitation of sponges on Caribbean reefs. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 519: 265-283" (PDF).{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  30. ↑ Pawlik, J.R., McMurray, S.E., Erwin, P. and Zea, S. (2015). "No evidence for food limitation of Caribbean reef sponges: Reply to Slattery & Lesser (2015). Marine Ecology Progress Series, 527: 281-284" (PDF).{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  31. ↑ Scott, Alexander R.; Pawlik, Joseph R. (2019). "A review of the sponge increase hypothesis for Caribbean mesophotic reefs". Marine Biodiversity. 49 (3): 1073–1083. doi:10.1007/s12526-018-0904-7. ISSN   1867-1624. S2CID   46959266.
  32. ↑ Pawlik, Joseph R.; Scott, Alexander R. (2019). "Sponge density increases with depth throughout the Caribbean: Comment". Ecosphere. 10 (4). doi: 10.1002/ecs2.2689 . ISSN   2150-8925. S2CID   132159314.
  33. ↑ Scott, Alexander R.; Battista, Timothy A.; Blum, James E.; Noren, Lara N.; Pawlik, Joseph R. (2019). "Patterns of benthic cover with depth on Caribbean mesophotic reefs". Coral Reefs. 38 (5): 961–972. Bibcode:2019CorRe..38..961S. doi:10.1007/s00338-019-01824-6. ISSN   1432-0975. S2CID   173992927.
  34. ↑ Pawlik, Joseph R.; Armstrong, Roy A.; Farrington, Stephanie; Reed, John; Rivero-Calle, Sara; Singh, Hanumant; Walker, Brian K.; White, Jason (2022). "Comparison of recent survey techniques for estimating benthic cover on Caribbean mesophotic reefs". Marine Ecology Progress Series. 686: 201–211. doi: 10.3354/meps14018 . ISSN   0171-8630. S2CID   247404555.
  35. 1 2 McMurray, Steven E.; Stubler, Amber D.; Erwin, Patrick M.; Finelli, Christopher M.; Pawlik, Joseph R. (2018). "A test of the sponge-loop hypothesis for emergent Caribbean reef sponges". Marine Ecology Progress Series. 588: 1–14. Bibcode:2018MEPS..588....1M. doi: 10.3354/meps12466 . ISSN   0171-8630.
  36. ↑ Wooster, Michael K.; McMurray, Steven E.; Pawlik, Joseph R.; Morán, Xosé A. G.; Berumen, Michael L. (2019). "Feeding and respiration by giant barrel sponges across a gradient of food abundance in the Red Sea". Limnology and Oceanography. 64 (4): 1790–1801. Bibcode:2019LimOc..64.1790W. doi: 10.1002/lno.11151 . ISSN   0024-3590. S2CID   92503141.
  37. ↑ Olinger, Lauren K.; Strangman, Wendy K.; McMurray, Steven E.; Pawlik, Joseph R. (2021). "Sponges With Microbial Symbionts Transform Dissolved Organic Matter and Take Up Organohalides". Frontiers in Marine Science. 8: 665789. doi: 10.3389/fmars.2021.665789 . ISSN   2296-7745.
  38. ↑ "Sponges of the Caribbean". YouTube .
  39. ↑ "The maid did it!". YouTube .
  40. ↑ "Ocean 180 Video Challenge".
  41. ↑ Requiem for a Caribbean reef
  42. ↑ Reefs of the Past: Cuba, 1970s
  43. ↑ Reefs of the Past: Grecian Rocks, Florida Keys, 1987
  44. ↑ Reefs of the Past: Dry Rocks, Christ Statue, Florida Keys, 1987
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