Seaweed

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Seaweed
Informal group of macroscopic marine algae
Fucus serratus 2015-09-08 ag M0010140.jpg
Fucus serratus
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Seaweeds can be found in the following groups
Ascophyllum nodosum exposed to the sun in Nova Scotia, Canada Ascophyllum nodosum.jpg
Ascophyllum nodosum exposed to the sun in Nova Scotia, Canada
Dead man's fingers (Codium fragile) off the Massachusetts coast in the United States Codiumfragile.jpg
Dead man's fingers ( Codium fragile ) off the Massachusetts coast in the United States
The top of a kelp forest in Otago, New Zealand Kelp forest Otago 1s.JPG
The top of a kelp forest in Otago, New Zealand

Seaweed, or macroalgae, refers to thousands of species of macroscopic, multicellular, marine algae. The term includes some types of Rhodophyta (red), Phaeophyta (brown) and Chlorophyta (green) macroalgae. Seaweed species such as kelps provide essential nursery habitat for fisheries and other marine species and thus protect food sources; other species, such as planktonic algae, play a vital role in capturing carbon and producing at least 50% of Earth's oxygen. [3]

Contents

Natural seaweed ecosystems are sometimes under threat from human activity. For example, mechanical dredging of kelp destroys the resource and dependent fisheries. Other forces also threaten some seaweed ecosystems; for example, a wasting disease in predators of purple urchins has led to an urchin population surge which has destroyed large kelp forest regions off the coast of California. [4]

Humans have a long history of cultivating seaweeds for their uses. In recent years, seaweed farming has become a global agricultural practice, providing food, source material for various chemical uses (such as carrageenan), cattle feeds and fertilizers. Due to their importance in marine ecologies and for absorbing carbon dioxide, recent attention has been on cultivating seaweeds as a potential climate change mitigation strategy for biosequestration of carbon dioxide, alongside other benefits like nutrient pollution reduction, increased habitat for coastal aquatic species, and reducing local ocean acidification. [5] The IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate recommends "further research attention" as a mitigation tactic. [6]

Taxonomy

"Seaweed" lacks a formal definition, but seaweed generally lives in the ocean and is visible to the naked eye. The term refers to both flowering plants submerged in the ocean, like eelgrass, as well as larger marine algae. Generally, it is one of several groups of multicellular algae; red, green and brown. [7] They lack one common multicellular ancestor, forming a polyphyletic group. In addition, blue-green algae (Cyanobacteria) are occasionally considered in seaweed literature. [8]

The number of seaweed species is still a topic of discussed among scientists, but it is most likely that there are several thousand species of seaweed. [9]

Genera

Claudea elegans tetrasporangia Claudea elegans tetrasporangia.jpg
Claudea elegans tetrasporangia

The following table lists a very few example genera of seaweed.

GenusAlgae
Phylum		Remarks
Caulerpa Caulerpa prolifera.JPG GreenSubmerged.
Fucus Fucus serratus2.jpg BrownIn intertidal zones on rocky shores.
Gracilaria Gracilaria2.JPG RedCultivated for food.
Laminaria Laminaria hyperborea - Kohler-s Medizinal-Pflanzen-214.jpg BrownAlso known as kelp
8–30 m under water and
cultivated for food.
Macrocystis Giantkelp2 300.jpg BrownGiant kelp
forming floating canopies.
Monostroma Seaweed-farmer.JPG Green
Porphyra Neopyropia yezoensis.jpg RedIntertidal zones in temperate climate and
cultivated for food.
Sargassum Sargassum weeds closeup.jpg BrownPelagic especially in the Sargasso Sea.

Anatomy

Seaweed's appearance resembles non-woody terrestrial plants. Its anatomy includes: [10] [11]

The stipe and blade are collectively known as the frond.

Ecology

Seaweed covers this rocky seabed on the east coast of Australia. NSW seabed 2.JPG
Seaweed covers this rocky seabed on the east coast of Australia.

Two environmental requirements dominate seaweed ecology. These are seawater (or at least brackish water) and light sufficient to support photosynthesis. Another common requirement is an attachment point, and therefore seaweed most commonly inhabits the littoral zone (nearshore waters) and within that zone, on rocky shores more than on sand or shingle. In addition, there are few genera (e.g., Sargassum and Gracilaria ) which do not live attached to the sea floor, but float freely.

Seaweed occupies various ecological niches. At the surface, they are only wetted by the tops of sea spray, while some species may attach to a substrate several meters deep. In some areas, littoral seaweed colonies can extend miles out to sea.[ citation needed ] The deepest living seaweed are some species of red algae. Others have adapted to live in tidal rock pools. In this habitat, seaweed must withstand rapidly changing temperature and salinity and occasional drying. [12]

Macroalgae and macroalgal detritus have also been shown to be an important food source for benthic organisms, because macroalgae shed old fronds. [13] These macroalgal fronds tend to be utilized by benthos in the intertidal zone close to the shore. [14] [15] Alternatively, pneumatocysts (gas filled "bubbles") can keep the macroalgae thallus afloat; fronds are transported by wind and currents from the coast into the deep ocean. [13] It has been shown that benthic organisms also at several 100 m tend to utilize these macroalgae remnants. [15]

As macroalgae takes up carbon dioxide and releases oxygen in the photosynthesis, macroalgae fronds can also contribute to carbon sequestration in the ocean, when the macroalgal fronds drift offshore into the deep ocean basins and sink to the sea floor without being remineralized by organisms. [13] The importance of this process for blue carbon storage is currently a topic of discussion among scientists. [16] [17] [18]

Biogeographic expansion

Nowadays a number of vectors—e.g., transport on ship hulls, exchanges among shellfish farmers, global warming, opening of trans-oceanic canals—all combine to enhance the transfer of exotic seaweeds to new environments. Since the piercing of the Suez Canal, the situation is particularly acute in the Mediterranean Sea, a 'marine biodiversity hotspot' that now registers over 120 newly introduced seaweed species -the largest number in the world. [19]

Production

As of 2019, 35,818,961 tonnes were produced, of which 97.38% were produced in Asian countries. [20]

Seaweed production
Countrytonns
per year,
cultured and wild
China20,351,442
Indonesia9,962,900
South Korea1,821,475
Philippines1,500,326
North Korea603,000
Chile427,508
Japan412,300
Malaysia188,110
Norway163,197
United Republic of Tanzania106,069

Farming

This section is an excerpt from Seaweed farming.[ edit ]

Seaweed farming or kelp farming is the practice of cultivating and harvesting seaweed. In its simplest form farmers gather from natural beds, while at the other extreme farmers fully control the crop's life cycle.

The seven most cultivated taxa are Eucheuma spp., Kappaphycus alvarezii , Gracilaria spp., Saccharina japonica , Undaria pinnatifida , Pyropia spp., and Sargassum fusiforme . Eucheuma and K. alvarezii are attractive for carrageenan (a gelling agent); Gracilaria is farmed for agar; the rest are eaten after limited processing. [21] Seaweeds are different from mangroves and seagrasses, as they are photosynthetic algal organisms [22] and are non-flowering. [21]

The largest seaweed-producing countries as of 2022 are China (58.62%) and Indonesia (28.6%); followed by South Korea (5.09%) and the Philippines (4.19%). Other notable producers include North Korea (1.6%), Japan (1.15%), Malaysia (0.53%), Zanzibar (Tanzania, 0.5%), and Chile (0.3%). [23] [24] Seaweed farming has frequently been developed to improve economic conditions and to reduce fishing pressure. [25]

The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) reported that world production in 2019 was over 35 million tonnes. North America produced some 23,000 tonnes of wet seaweed. Alaska, Maine, France, and Norway each more than doubled their seaweed production since 2018. As of 2019, seaweed represented 30% of marine aquaculture. [26]

Seaweed farming is a carbon negative crop, with a high potential for climate change mitigation. [27] [28] The IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate recommends "further research attention" as a mitigation tactic. [29] World Wildlife Fund, Oceans 2050, and The Nature Conservancy publicly support expanded seaweed cultivation. [26]

Uses

Seaweed has a variety of uses, for which it is farmed [30] or foraged. [31]

Food

Seaweed is consumed across the world, particularly in East Asia, e.g., Japan, China, Korea, Taiwan and Southeast Asia, e.g. Brunei, Singapore, Thailand, Burma, Cambodia, Vietnam, Indonesia, the Philippines, and Malaysia, [32] as well as in South Africa, Belize, Peru, Chile, the Canadian Maritimes, Scandinavia, South West England, [33] Ireland, Wales, Hawaii and California, and Scotland.

Gim (김, Korea), nori (海苔, Japan) and zicai (紫菜, China) are sheets of dried Porphyra used in soups, sushi or onigiri (rice balls). Gamet in the Philippines, from dried Pyropia , is also used as a flavoring ingredient for soups, salads and omelettes. [34] Chondrus crispus ('Irish moss' or carrageenan moss) is used in food additives, along with Kappaphycus and Gigartinoid seaweed. Porphyra is used in Wales to make laverbread (sometimes with oat flour). In northern Belize, seaweed is mixed with milk, nutmeg, cinnamon and vanilla to make "dulce" ("sweet").

Alginate, agar and carrageenan are gelatinous seaweed products collectively known as hydrocolloids or phycocolloids. Hydrocolloids are food additives. [35] The food industry exploits their gelling, water-retention, emulsifying and other physical properties. Agar is used in foods such as confectionery, meat and poultry products, desserts and beverages and moulded foods. Carrageenan is used in salad dressings and sauces, dietetic foods, and as a preservative in meat and fish, dairy items and baked goods.

Seaweeds are used as animal feeds. They have long been grazed by sheep, horses and cattle in Northern Europe, even though their nutritional benefits are questionable. Their protein content is low and their heavy metal content is high, especially for arsenic and iodine, which are respectively toxic and nutritious. [36] [37]

They are valued for fish production. [38] Adding seaweed to livestock feed can substantially reduce methane emissions from cattle, [39] but only from their feedlot emissions. As of 2021, feedlot emissions account for 11% of overall emissions from cattle. [40]

Medicine and herbs

Seaweed-covered rocks in the United Kingdom Seaweed 600.jpg
Seaweed-covered rocks in the United Kingdom
Seaweed on rocks on Long Island Seaweed on rocks at Atlantic Ocean.jpg
Seaweed on rocks on Long Island

Alginates are used in wound dressings (see alginate dressing), and dental moulds. In microbiology, agar is used as a culture medium. Carrageenans, alginates and agaroses, with other macroalgal polysaccharides, have biomedicine applications. Delisea pulchra may interfere with bacterial colonization. [41] Sulfated saccharides from red and green algae inhibit some DNA and RNA-enveloped viruses. [42]

Seaweed extract is used in some diet pills. [43] Other seaweed pills exploit the same effect as gastric banding, expanding in the stomach to make the stomach feel more full. [44] [45]

Climate change mitigation

This section is an excerpt from Seaweed farming § Climate change mitigation.[ edit ]
Seaweed cultivation in the open ocean can act as a form of carbon sequestration to mitigate climate change. [46] [47] Studies have reported that nearshore seaweed forests constitute a source of blue carbon, as seaweed detritus is carried into the middle and deep ocean thereby sequestering carbon. [29] [28] [48] [49] [50] Macrocystis pyrifera (also known as giant kelp) sequesters carbon faster than any other species. It can reach 60 m (200 ft) in length and grow as rapidly as 50 cm (20 in) a day. [51] According to one study, covering 9% of the world's oceans with kelp forests could produce "sufficient biomethane to replace all of today's needs in fossil fuel energy, while removing 53 billion tons of CO2 per year from the atmosphere, restoring pre-industrial levels". [52] [53]

Other uses

Other seaweed may be used as fertilizer, compost for landscaping, or to combat beach erosion through burial in beach dunes. [54]

Seaweed is under consideration as a potential source of bioethanol. [55] [56]

Seaweed is lifted out of the top of an algae scrubber/cultivator, to be discarded or used as food, fertilizer, or skin care. Harvesting (cleaning) algae that have grown in an algae scrubber.jpg
Seaweed is lifted out of the top of an algae scrubber/cultivator, to be discarded or used as food, fertilizer, or skin care.

Alginates are used in industrial products such as paper coatings, adhesives, dyes, gels, explosives and in processes such as paper sizing, textile printing, hydro-mulching and drilling. Seaweed is an ingredient in toothpaste, cosmetics and paints. Seaweed is used for the production of bio yarn (a textile). [57]

Several of these resources can be obtained from seaweed through biorefining.

Seaweed collecting is the process of collecting, drying and pressing seaweed. It was a popular pastime in the Victorian era and remains a hobby today. In some emerging countries, seaweed is harvested daily to support communities.

Women in Tanzania grow "Mwani" (seaweed in Swahili). The farms are made up of little sticks in neat rows in the warm, shallow water. Once they harvest the seaweed, it is used for many purposes: food, cosmetics, fabric, etc. Harvesting seaweed in Jambiani.jpg
Women in Tanzania grow "Mwani" (seaweed in Swahili). The farms are made up of little sticks in neat rows in the warm, shallow water. Once they harvest the seaweed, it is used for many purposes: food, cosmetics, fabric, etc.

Seaweed is sometimes used to build roofs on houses on Læsø in Denmark. [58]

Health risks

Rotting seaweed is a potent source of hydrogen sulfide, a highly toxic gas, and has been implicated in some incidents of apparent hydrogen sulfide poisoning. [59] It can cause vomiting and diarrhea. [60]

The so-called "stinging seaweed" Microcoleus lyngbyaceus is a filamentous cyanobacteria which contains toxins including lyngbyatoxin-a and debromoaplysiatoxin. Direct skin contact can cause seaweed dermatitis characterized by painful, burning lesions that last for days. [1] [61]

Threats

Bacterial disease ice-ice infects Kappaphycus (red seaweed), turning its branches white. The disease caused heavy crop losses in the Philippines, Tanzania and Mozambique. [62]

Sea urchin barrens have replaced kelp forests in multiple areas. They are "almost immune to starvation". Lifespans can exceed 50 years. When stressed by hunger, their jaws and teeth enlarge, and they form "fronts" and hunt for food collectively. [62]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Algae</span> Diverse group of photosynthetic eukaryotic organisms

Algae are any of a large and diverse group of photosynthetic, eukaryotic organisms. The name is an informal term for a polyphyletic grouping that includes species from multiple distinct clades. Included organisms range from unicellular microalgae, such as Chlorella, Prototheca and the diatoms, to multicellular forms, such as the giant kelp, a large brown alga which may grow up to 50 metres (160 ft) in length. Most are aquatic and lack many of the distinct cell and tissue types, such as stomata, xylem and phloem that are found in land plants. The largest and most complex marine algae are called seaweeds, while the most complex freshwater forms are the Charophyta, a division of green algae which includes, for example, Spirogyra and stoneworts. Algae that are carried by water are plankton, specifically phytoplankton.

<i>Chondrus crispus</i> Species of edible alga

Chondrus crispus—commonly called Irish moss or carrageenan moss —is a species of red algae which grows abundantly along the rocky parts of the Atlantic coasts of Europe and North America. In its fresh condition it is soft and cartilaginous, varying in color from a greenish-yellow, through red, to a dark purple or purplish-brown. The principal constituent is a mucilaginous body, made of the polysaccharide carrageenan, which constitutes 55% of its dry weight. The organism also consists of nearly 10% dry weight protein and about 15% dry weight mineral matter, and is rich in iodine and sulfur. When softened in water it has a sea-like odour. Because of the abundant cell wall polysaccharides, it will form a jelly when boiled, containing from 20 to 100 times its weight of water.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kelp</span> Large brown seaweeds in the order Laminariales

Kelps are large brown algae or seaweeds that make up the order Laminariales. There are about 30 different genera. Despite its appearance, kelp is not a plant but a stramenopile, a group containing many protists.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Brown algae</span> Large group of multicellular algae, comprising the class Phaeophyceae

Brown algae are a large group of multicellular algae comprising the class Phaeophyceae. They include many seaweeds located in colder waters of the Northern Hemisphere. Brown algae are the major seaweeds of the temperate and polar regions. Many brown algae, such as members of the order Fucales, commonly grow along rocky seashores. Most brown algae live in marine environments, where they play an important role both as food and as a potential habitat. For instance, Macrocystis, a kelp of the order Laminariales, may reach 60 m (200 ft) in length and forms prominent underwater kelp forests that contain a high level of biodiversity. Another example is Sargassum, which creates unique floating mats of seaweed in the tropical waters of the Sargasso Sea that serve as the habitats for many species. Some members of the class, such as kelps, are used by humans as food.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kelp forest</span> Underwater areas highly dense with kelp

Kelp forests are underwater areas with a high density of kelp, which covers a large part of the world's coastlines. Smaller areas of anchored kelp are called kelp beds. They are recognized as one of the most productive and dynamic ecosystems on Earth. Although algal kelp forest combined with coral reefs only cover 0.1% of Earth's total surface, they account for 0.9% of global primary productivity. Kelp forests occur worldwide throughout temperate and polar coastal oceans. In 2007, kelp forests were also discovered in tropical waters near Ecuador.

<i>Laminaria</i> Genus of algae

Laminaria is a genus of brown seaweed in the order Laminariales (kelp), comprising 31 species native to the north Atlantic and northern Pacific Oceans. This economically important genus is characterized by long, leathery laminae and relatively large size. Some species are called Devil's apron, due to their shape, or sea colander, due to the perforations present on the lamina. Others are referred to as tangle. Laminaria form a habitat for many fish and invertebrates.

<i>Macrocystis</i> Genus of large brown algae

Macrocystis is a monospecific genus of kelp with all species now synonymous with Macrocystis pyrifera. It is commonly known as giant kelp or bladder kelp. This genus contains the largest of all the Phaeophyceae or brown algae. Macrocystis has pneumatocysts at the base of its blades. Sporophytes are perennial and the individual may live for up to three years; stipes/fronds within a whole individual undergo senescence, where each frond may persist for approximately 100 days. The genus is found widely in subtropical, temperate, and sub-Antarctic oceans of the Southern Hemisphere and in the northeast Pacific from Baja California to Sitka, Alaska. Macrocystis is often a major component of temperate kelp forests.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Algaculture</span> Aquaculture involving the farming of algae

Algaculture is a form of aquaculture involving the farming of species of algae.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Carbon sequestration</span> Storing carbon in a carbon pool (natural as well as enhanced or artificial processes)

Carbon sequestration is the process of storing carbon in a carbon pool. It plays a crucial role in limiting climate change by reducing the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. There are two main types of carbon sequestration: biologic and geologic.

<i>Kappaphycus alvarezii</i> Species of red algae

Kappaphycus alvarezii, the elkhorn sea moss, is a species of red algae. The elkhorn sea moss varies in size, weight, and age. It is a dark greenish-brown hue and can sometimes be deep purple. The moss is cylindrical in shape throughout the seaweed. Its diameter averages 1.526 mm when dried. Near the base of the seaweed, its average length is from 1 mm to 17 mm and 1 mm to 2 mm in diameter. Firm algae are around 2 m tall, with axes and branches around 1–2 cm in diameter. It used to be believed they reproduced through vegetative fermentation, but recent studies show that they reproduce sexually. They reproduce through vegetative propagation and reproduce sexually. Cross sections of the Elkhorn sea moss have a medulla composed of small thick-walled cells interspaced among large parenchyma cells. This moss is used for various types of foods that humans consume and can also be used to make a jelly-like dessert. This moss is a very good source of minerals and of high commercial interest. It is one of the most important commercial sources of carrageenans, a family of gel-forming, viscosifying polysaccharides. Farming methods affect the character of the carrageenan that can be extracted from the seaweed. It is very fast-growing, known to double its biomass in 15 days.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Edible seaweed</span> Algae that can be eaten and used for culinary purposes

Edible seaweed, or sea vegetables, are seaweeds that can be eaten and used for culinary purposes. They typically contain high amounts of fiber. They may belong to one of several groups of multicellular algae: the red algae, green algae, and brown algae. Seaweeds are also harvested or cultivated for the extraction of polysaccharides such as alginate, agar and carrageenan, gelatinous substances collectively known as hydrocolloids or phycocolloids. Hydrocolloids have attained commercial significance, especially in food production as food additives. The food industry exploits the gelling, water-retention, emulsifying and other physical properties of these hydrocolloids.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ice-ice</span> Disease condition of seaweed

Ice-ice is a disease condition of seaweed. Ice-ice is caused when changes in salinity, ocean temperature and light intensity cause stress to seaweeds, making them produce a "moist organic substance" that attracts bacteria in the water and induces the characteristic "whitening" and hardening of the seaweed's tissues. Bacteria involved include those in the Vibrio-Aeromonas and Cytophaga-Flavobacteria complexes. The bacteria lyse epidermal cells and chloroplasts, turning the seaweed tissue white. The disease is known from seaweeds including Kappaphycus alvarezii and Eucheuma denticulatum, economically important sources of carrageenan. In countries where seaweed is harvested as a crop, ice-ice can wreak havoc on yields. Zamboanga, Philippines, had an outbreak of ice-ice in 2004, and Bali, Indonesia, experienced an outbreak in 2009. A rise in surface sea temperatures of 2–3 degrees Celsius can trigger ice-ice outbreaks.

<i>Asparagopsis taxiformis</i> Species of seaweed

Asparagopsis taxiformis, formerly A. sanfordiana, is a species of red algae, with cosmopolitan distribution in tropical to warm temperate waters. Researchers have demonstrated that feeding ruminants a diet containing 0.2% A. taxiformis seaweed reduced their methane emissions by nearly 99 percent.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Seaweed farming</span> Farming of aquatic seaweed

Seaweed farming or kelp farming is the practice of cultivating and harvesting seaweed. In its simplest form farmers gather from natural beds, while at the other extreme farmers fully control the crop's life cycle.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Aquaculture of giant kelp</span> Cultivation of seaweed

Aquaculture of giant kelp, Macrocystis pyrifera, is the cultivation of kelp for uses such as food, dietary supplements or potash. Giant kelp contains iodine, potassium, other minerals vitamins and carbohydrates.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Blue carbon</span> Carbon stored in coastal and marine ecosystems

Blue carbon is a concept within climate change mitigation that refers to "biologically driven carbon fluxes and storage in marine systems that are amenable to management". Most commonly, it refers to the role that tidal marshes, mangroves and seagrasses can play in carbon sequestration. These ecosystems can play an important role for climate change mitigation and ecosystem-based adaptation. However, when blue carbon ecosystems are degraded or lost, they release carbon back to the atmosphere, thereby adding to greenhouse gas emissions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gavino Trono</span> Filipino biologist (born 1931)

Gavino Trono Jr. is a Filipino marine biologist dubbed as the "Father of Kappaphycus farming". He was conferred the rank of National Scientist of the Philippines for contributions to the study of tropical marine phycology, focusing on seaweed biodiversity. He is currently a professor emeritus of the University of the Philippines Marine Science Institute.

<i>Furcellaria</i> Genus of seaweeds

Furcellaria is a genus of red algae. It is a monotypic genus, the only species being Furcellaria lumbricalis, which has commercial importance as a raw material for carrageenan production. It is mainly harvested from the waters of Denmark and Canada.

Seaweed fertiliser is organic fertilizer made from seaweed that is used in agriculture to increase soil fertility and plant growth. The use of seaweed fertilizer dates back to antiquity and has a broad array of benefits for soils. Seaweed fertilizer can be applied in a number of different forms, including refined liquid extracts and dried, pulverized organic material. Through its composition of various bioactive molecules, seaweed functions as a strong soil conditioner, bio-remediator, and biological pest control, with each seaweed phylum offering various benefits to soil and crop health. These benefits can include increased tolerance to abiotic stressors, improved soil texture and water retention, and reduced occurrence of diseases.

References

  1. 1 2 "Escharotic stomatitis caused by the "stinging seaweed" Microcoleus lyngbyaceus (formerly Lyngbya majuscula): case report and literature review" .
  2. ↑ James, William D.; Berger, Timothy G.; et al. (2006). Andrews' Diseases of the Skin: clinical Dermatology. Saunders Elsevier. ISBN   978-0-7216-2921-6.
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  4. ↑ "California's crashing kelp forest". phys.org. Retrieved 2021-02-24.
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  14. ↑ Dunton, K. H.; Schell, D. M. (1987). "Dependence of consumers on macroalgal (Laminaria solidungula) carbon in an arctic kelp community: δ13C evidence". Marine Biology. 93 (4): 615–625. Bibcode:1987MarBi..93..615D. doi:10.1007/BF00392799. S2CID   84714929.
  15. 1 2 Renaud, Paul E.; Løkken, Therese S.; Jørgensen, Lis L.; Berge, Jørgen; Johnson, Beverly J. (June 2015). "Macroalgal detritus and food-web subsidies along an Arctic fjord depth-gradient". Front. Mar. Sci. 2. doi: 10.3389/fmars.2015.00031 . S2CID   10417856.
  16. ↑ Watanabe, Kenta; Yoshida, Goro; Hori, Masakazu; Umezawa, Yu; Moki, Hirotada; Kuwae, Tomohiro (May 2020). "Macroalgal metabolism and lateral carbon flows can create significant carbon sinks". Biogeosciences. 17 (9): 2425–2440. Bibcode:2020BGeo...17.2425W. doi: 10.5194/bg-17-2425-2020 . Retrieved September 21, 2020.
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  19. ↑ Briand, Frederic, ed. (2015). CIESM Atlas of Exotic Species in the Mediterranean. Volume 4. Macrophytes. CIESM, Paris, Monaco. p. 364. ISBN   9789299000342.
  20. ↑ Global seaweeds and microalgae production(FAO)
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