Sargassum

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Sargassum
Sargassum weeds closeup.jpg
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Clade: Diaphoretickes
Clade: SAR
Clade: Stramenopiles
Phylum: Gyrista
Subphylum: Ochrophytina
Class: Phaeophyceae
Order: Fucales
Family: Sargassaceae
Genus: Sargassum
Species

See list

Lines of sargassum Sargasso Sea.jpg
Lines of Sargassum may stretch for miles along the ocean surface
Naturalis Biodiversity Center - L.4036015 - Sargassum hildebrandtii Grunow - Sargassaceae - Plant type specimen.jpeg
Sargassum hildebrandtii Grunow, herbarium type specimen, Somalia, before 1889

Sargassum is a genus of brown macroalgae (seaweed) in the order Fucales of the Phaeophyceae class. [1] Numerous species are distributed throughout the temperate and tropical oceans of the world, where they generally inhabit shallow water and coral reefs, and the genus is widely known for its planktonic (free-floating) species. Most species within the class Phaeophyceae are predominantly cold-water organisms that benefit from nutrients upwelling, but the genus Sargassum appears to be an exception. [2] Any number of the normally benthic species may take on a planktonic, often pelagic existence after being removed from reefs during rough weather. Two species (S. natans and S. fluitans) have become holopelagic—reproducing vegetatively and never attaching to the seafloor during their lifecycles. The Atlantic Ocean's Sargasso Sea was named after the algae, as it hosts a large amount of Sargassum. [3]

Contents

The size of annual blooms in the Atlantic increased by over a hundred-fold, starting in 2011, as a result of factors including increased fertilizer runoff in major rivers such as the Amazon and Congo.

History

Sargassum was named by the Portuguese sailors who found it in the Sargasso Sea. They called it after the wooly rock rose ( Halimium lasianthum ) that grew in their water wells at home,[ citation needed ] and that was called sargaço in Portuguese (Portuguese pronunciation: [sɐɾˈɣasu] ) [4] - from the Latin salicastrum.

The Florida Keys and mainland South Florida are well known for the high levels of Sargassum covering their shores. Sargassum or gulfweed was observed by Columbus. Although the seaweed acquired a legendary reputation for covering the entirety of the Sargasso Sea, making navigation impossible, [5] it has since been found to occur only in drifts. [6]

Sargassum species are cultivated and cleaned for use as an herbal remedy. Many Chinese herbalists prescribe powdered Sargassum—either the species S. pallidum, or more rarely, hijiki, S. fusiforme—in doses of 0.5 grams dissolved in warm water and drunk as a tea. It is called 海藻; hǎizǎo in traditional Chinese medicine, where it is used to resolve "heat phlegm". [7]

Sargassum (F. Sargassaceae) is an important seaweed excessively distributed in tropical and subtropical regions. Different species of Sargassum have folk applications in human nutrition and are considered a rich source of vitamins, carotenoids, proteins, and minerals. Many bioactive chemical compounds that are classified as terpenoids, sterols, sulfated polysaccharides, polyphenols, sargaquinoic acids, sargachromanol, and pheophytin were isolated from different Sargassum species. These isolated compounds and/or extracts exhibit diverse biological activities, including analgesic, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, neuroprotective, anti-microbial, anti-tumor, fibrinolytic, immune-modulatory, anticoagulant, hepatoprotective, and anti-viral activities. [8]

Description

Close-up of Sargassum, showing the air bladders that help it stay afloat. Sargassum on the beach, Cuba.JPG
Close-up of Sargassum, showing the air bladders that help it stay afloat.

Species of this genus of algae may grow to a length of several metres. They are generally brown or dark green in color and consist of a holdfast, a stipe, and a frond. Oogonia and antheridia occur in conceptacles embedded in receptacles on special branches. [9] Some species have berrylike gas-filled bladders that help the fronds float to promote photosynthesis. Many have a rough, sticky texture that, along with a robust but flexible body, help them withstand strong water currents.

Ecology

Large, pelagic mats of Sargassum in the Sargasso Sea act as one of the only habitats available for ecosystem development; this is because the Sargasso Sea lacks any land boundaries. [10] The Sargassum patches act as a refuge for many species in different parts of their development, but also as a permanent residence for endemic species that can only be found living on and within the Sargassum. [11] These endemic organisms have specialized patterns and colorations that mimic the Sargassum and allow them to be impressively camouflaged in their environment. In total, these Sargassum mats are home to more than 11 phyla and over 100 different species. [12] There is also a total of 81 fish species (36 families represented) that reside in the Sargassum or utilize it for parts of their life cycles. [13] Other marine organisms, such as young sea turtles, will use the Sargassum as shelter and a resource for food until they reach a size at which they can survive elsewhere. This community is being affected by humans due to overfishing, trash and other types of pollution, and boat traffic, which could eventually lead to the demise of this diverse and unique habitat. [11] Below is a list of organisms that are associated with the Sargassum in the Sargasso Sea.

The Sargasso Sea plays a major role in the migration of catadromous eel species such as the European eel, the American eel, and the American conger eel. The larvae of these species hatch within the sea and as they grow they travel to Europe or the East Coast of North America. Later in life, the matured eel migrates back to the Sargasso Sea to spawn and lay eggs. It is also believed that after hatching, young loggerhead sea turtles use currents, such as the Gulf Stream, to travel to the Sargasso Sea, where they use the Sargassum as cover from predators until they are mature. [14] [15]

Organisms found in the pelagic Sargassum patches, [16] [17] [11]

Sargassum is commonly found in the beach drift near Sargassum beds, where they are also known as gulfweed, a term that also can mean all seaweed species washed up on shore.

Sargassum species are found throughout tropical areas of the world and are often the most obvious macrophyte in near-shore areas where Sargassum beds often occur near coral reefs. The plants grow subtidally and attach to coral, rocks, or shells in moderately exposed or sheltered rocky or pebble areas. These tropical populations often undergo seasonal cycles of growth and decay in concert with seasonal changes in sea temperature. [18] In tropical Sargassum species that are often preferentially consumed by herbivorous fishes and echinoids, a relatively low level of phenolics and tannins occurs. [19]

Histrio histrio by A. H. Baldwin.jpg
Fish4283 - Flickr - NOAA Photo Library Histrio histrio.jpg
Expl0372 - Flickr - NOAA Photo Library.jpg
The camouflaged Sargassum fish (left) has adapted to live among drifting Sargassum seaweed. It is usually a small fish (center).
Some other small fish, such as this juvenile puffer (right), are also found in Sargassum.

"Coastal inundations" by washed-ashore Sargassum

Large patches of Sargassum adrift near the island of Saint Martin. Sargasses au large de Tintamare- RNN de Saint Martin.jpg
Large patches of Sargassum adrift near the island of Saint Martin.

In limited amounts, washed-ashore Sargassum plays an important role in maintaining Atlantic and Caribbean coastal ecosystems. [20] Once ashore, Sargassum provides vital nutrients such as carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus to coastal ecosystems which border the nutrient-poor waters of the western North Atlantic tropics and subtropics. [21] [22] Additionally, it decreases coastal erosion. [22]

Beginning in 2011, unprecedented quantities of Sargassum began inundating coastal areas in record amounts. [23] Coastlines in Brazil, the Caribbean, Gulf of Mexico, and the east coast of Florida saw quantities of Sargassum wash ashore up to three feet deep. [24] [20] The first major Sargassum inundation event occurred in 2011 and had a biomass increase of 200 fold compared to the previous eight years average bloom size. [25] Since 2011 increasingly stronger inundation events have occurred every 2–3 years. During a Sargassum inundation event in 2018, one Sargassum bloom measured over 1600 square kilometers, more than three times the average size. [25] [26] Recent inundation events have caused millions of dollars of lost revenue in the tourism industry, especially hurting small Caribbean countries whose economies are highly dependent on seasonal tourism. [25]

While the Sargasso Sea is a known source of Sargassum blooms, variations in the Sargassum types composing these inundation events have led researchers to believe that the Sargasso Sea is not the point of origin of inundating Sargassum. [25] [27] Sargassum natans I and Sargassum fluitans III are the dominant Sargassum species found in the Sargasso Sea. [28] Recent net sampling studies have found Sargassum natans VIII, a previously rare type, is constituting a dominating percentage of Sargassum biodiversity in the Western Atlantic and Sargasso Sea. [28] [29] [30]

Biological impacts

Unprecedented Sargassum inundation events cause a range of biological and ecological impacts in affected regions. The decomposition of large quantities of Sargassum along coastlines consumes oxygen, creating large oxygen-depleted zones resulting in fish kills. [31] Decomposing Sargassum additionally creates hydrogen sulfide gas ( H2S ), which causes a range of health impacts in humans. [32] During the Sargassum inundation event in 2018, 11,000 Acute Sargassum Toxicity cases were reported in an 8-month span on just the Caribbean islands of Guadeloupe and Martinique. [33] Massive amounts of floating Sargassum present a physical barrier preventing corals and seagrasses from receiving sufficient light, fouling boat propellers, and entangling marine turtles and mammals. [34] [35] With every Sargassum inundation event, large amounts of nutrients are transported from the open ocean to coastal environments. This greatly increases nutrient transport, and its effect on marine and coastal ecosystems are still unknown. Understanding the causes and drivers of Sargassum inundations is critical as they become more commonplace. [36]

Nutrient factors

The Sargasso Sea, a known source area for Sargassum blooms, is classified as an oligotrophic region. [37] With warm, oxygen-poor waters and low nutrient contents, biomass production is limited by what little nutrients are present. [38] Historically, low nutrient levels in the Sargasso Sea have limited Sargassum production. New influxes of nitrogen and phosphorus are driving factors in increased biomass production. [39] [40] [41]

Recent studies have found three likely drivers of nutrient influx linked to increasing Sargassum biomass: an increase in nutrient output from the Amazon River, increased nutrients in the Gulf of Mexico, and coastal upwelling off the West African Coast which transfers deep nutrient-rich waters to the upper water column where Sargassum resides. [42] [43] [41] Nutrient output from the Amazon River has been shown to have a direct delayed effect on large inundation events, which occur one to two years after years of high nutrient output. [42] Phosphates and iron transported via the trade winds from North Africa have been reported to have a fertilizing effect on Sargassum growth; further data is required to understand its role in causing inundating blooms. [25] Researchers globally agree that continued research is required to quantify the effect of marine chemical changes and other environmental factors in the recent increase in Sargassum biomass and inundation events. [42]

Currents and winds

The physical drivers behind Sargassum inundation events are prevailing winds and ocean surface currents. [44] The Caribbean is located in a region heavily affected by Trade winds. Trade winds are strong, consistent northeasterlies winds which blow dust-filled dry air from the Sahara across the Atlantic. [45] Trade winds additionally play a critical role in the annual hurricane season in the Western Atlantic. [46] The Caribbean Current and Antilles branch of the Atlantic North Equatorial Current are the major current transporters of Sargassum in the region. [47] [48]

Researchers have recently begun using Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer satellite imagery and ocean current data to track and forecast inundation events with a high level of accuracy. [49]

Human effects

The effects of deforestation, waste-water runoff, and commercial agriculture fertilizer on facilitating the excess accumulation of nutrients in aquatic and marine environments have been well studied and shown to be driving factors in eutrophication. [50] [51] Since detrimental Sargassum inundation events did not begin until 2011, it is likely that an unknown nutrient threshold was reached and surpassed. Given current agricultural policies and practices, it is unlikely these inundation events will disappear on their own without human intervention.

As food

Japanese cuisine as well as Chile have traditionally consumed Sargassum, known as hijiki, although it contains high amounts of arsenic, part of the arsenic cycle from groundwater, waterways, into oceans and back to land. There are methods to process and greatly reduce arsenic from this genus of seaweed, potentially making it a nearly inexhaustible food supply for animals or people.

Climate change

Variations in sea level, salinity, water temperature, chemical composition, rainfall patterns, and water acidity all play roles in regulating algae blooms. [52] As anthropogenic forces increase the variability of these factors, the frequency, duration, severity and geographic range of harmful algae blooms have increased, causing millions of dollars of lost revenue as well as damaging fragile coastal and coral ecosystems. [53]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Marine biology</span> Scientific study of organisms that live in the ocean

Marine biology is the scientific study of the biology of marine life, organisms in the sea. Given that in biology many phyla, families and genera have some species that live in the sea and others that live on land, marine biology classifies species based on the environment rather than on taxonomy.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Algal bloom</span> Spread of planktonic algae in water

An algal bloom or algae bloom is a rapid increase or accumulation in the population of algae in freshwater or marine water systems. It is often recognized by the discoloration in the water from the algae's pigments. The term algae encompasses many types of aquatic photosynthetic organisms, both macroscopic multicellular organisms like seaweed and microscopic unicellular organisms like cyanobacteria. Algal bloom commonly refers to the rapid growth of microscopic unicellular algae, not macroscopic algae. An example of a macroscopic algal bloom is a kelp forest.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Coral reef</span> Outcrop of rock in the sea formed by the growth and deposit of stony coral skeletons

A coral reef is an underwater ecosystem characterized by reef-building corals. Reefs are formed of colonies of coral polyps held together by calcium carbonate. Most coral reefs are built from stony corals, whose polyps cluster in groups.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Upwelling</span> Replacement by deep water moving upwards of surface water driven offshore by wind

Upwelling is an oceanographic phenomenon that involves wind-driven motion of dense, cooler, and usually nutrient-rich water from deep water towards the ocean surface. It replaces the warmer and usually nutrient-depleted surface water. The nutrient-rich upwelled water stimulates the growth and reproduction of primary producers such as phytoplankton. The biomass of phytoplankton and the presence of cool water in those regions allow upwelling zones to be identified by cool sea surface temperatures (SST) and high concentrations of chlorophyll a.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sargasso Sea</span> Region of the North Atlantic Ocean

The Sargasso Sea is a region of the Atlantic Ocean bounded by four currents forming an ocean gyre. Unlike all other regions called seas, it has no land boundaries. It is distinguished from other parts of the Atlantic Ocean by its characteristic brown Sargassum seaweed and often calm blue water.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kuroshio Current</span> North flowing ocean current on the west side of the North Pacific Ocean

The Kuroshio Current, also known as the Black Current or Japan Current is a north-flowing, warm ocean current on the west side of the North Pacific Ocean basin. It was named for the deep blue appearance of its waters. Similar to the Gulf Stream in the North Atlantic, the Kuroshio is a powerful western boundary current that transports warm equatorial water poleward and forms the western limb of the North Pacific Subtropical Gyre. Off the East Coast of Japan, it merges with the Oyashio Current to form the North Pacific Current.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pelagic fish</span> Fish in the pelagic zone of ocean waters

Pelagic fish live in the pelagic zone of ocean or lake waters—being neither close to the bottom nor near the shore—in contrast with demersal fish that live on or near the bottom, and reef fish that are associated with coral reefs.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Algaculture</span> Aquaculture involving the farming of algae

Algaculture is a form of aquaculture involving the farming of species of algae.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Marine ecosystem</span> Ecosystem in saltwater environment

Marine ecosystems are the largest of Earth's aquatic ecosystems and exist in waters that have a high salt content. These systems contrast with freshwater ecosystems, which have a lower salt content. Marine waters cover more than 70% of the surface of the Earth and account for more than 97% of Earth's water supply and 90% of habitable space on Earth. Seawater has an average salinity of 35 parts per thousand of water. Actual salinity varies among different marine ecosystems. Marine ecosystems can be divided into many zones depending upon water depth and shoreline features. The oceanic zone is the vast open part of the ocean where animals such as whales, sharks, and tuna live. The benthic zone consists of substrates below water where many invertebrates live. The intertidal zone is the area between high and low tides. Other near-shore (neritic) zones can include mudflats, seagrass meadows, mangroves, rocky intertidal systems, salt marshes, coral reefs, lagoons. In the deep water, hydrothermal vents may occur where chemosynthetic sulfur bacteria form the base of the food web.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Wild fisheries</span> Area containing fish that are harvested commercially

A wild fishery is a natural body of water with a sizeable free-ranging fish or other aquatic animal population that can be harvested for its commercial value. Wild fisheries can be marine (saltwater) or lacustrine/riverine (freshwater), and rely heavily on the carrying capacity of the local aquatic ecosystem.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Harmful algal bloom</span> Population explosion of organisms that can kill marine life

A harmful algal bloom (HAB), or excessive algae growth, is an algal bloom that causes negative impacts to other organisms by production of natural algae-produced toxins, mechanical damage to other organisms, or by other means. HABs are sometimes defined as only those algal blooms that produce toxins, and sometimes as any algal bloom that can result in severely lower oxygen levels in natural waters, killing organisms in marine or fresh waters. Blooms can last from a few days to many months. After the bloom dies, the microbes that decompose the dead algae use up more of the oxygen, generating a "dead zone" which can cause fish die-offs. When these zones cover a large area for an extended period of time, neither fish nor plants are able to survive. Harmful algal blooms in marine environments are often called "red tides".

<i>Sargassum muticum</i> Species of seaweed

Sargassum muticum, commonly known as Japanese wireweed or japweed, is a large brown seaweed of the genus Sargassum. It is an invasive seaweed with high growth rate. It has an efficient dispersion thanks to its floats.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Marine habitat</span> Habitat that supports marine life

A marine habitat is a habitat that supports marine life. Marine life depends in some way on the saltwater that is in the sea. A habitat is an ecological or environmental area inhabited by one or more living species. The marine environment supports many kinds of these habitats.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Planktivore</span> Aquatic organism that feeds on planktonic food

A planktivore is an aquatic organism that feeds on planktonic food, including zooplankton and phytoplankton. Planktivorous organisms encompass a range of some of the planet's smallest to largest multicellular animals in both the present day and in the past billion years; basking sharks and copepods are just two examples of giant and microscopic organisms that feed upon plankton. Planktivory can be an important mechanism of top-down control that contributes to trophic cascades in aquatic and marine systems. There is a tremendous diversity of feeding strategies and behaviors that planktivores utilize to capture prey. Some planktivores utilize tides and currents to migrate between estuaries and coastal waters; other aquatic planktivores reside in lakes or reservoirs where diverse assemblages of plankton are present, or migrate vertically in the water column searching for prey. Planktivore populations can impact the abundance and community composition of planktonic species through their predation pressure, and planktivore migrations facilitate nutrient transport between benthic and pelagic habitats.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Snake pipefish</span> Species of fish

The snake pipefish is a species of pipefish, from the family Syngnathidae, native to the northeastern Atlantic Ocean where they are generally found amongst algae close in to shore. It is the largest species of pipefish recorded in European waters and has spread into arctic waters in the early 2000s.

<i>Scyllaea pelagica</i> Species of gastropod

Scyllaea pelagica, common name the sargassum nudibranch, is a species of nudibranch, a marine gastropod mollusc in the family Scyllaeidae. This species lives among floating seaweed in the world's oceans, feeding on hydroids.

<i>Portunus sayi</i> Species of crab

Portunus sayi, the sargassum swimming crab, is a species of pelagic crab in the family Portunidae. It is found in the western Atlantic Ocean and the Caribbean Sea where it makes its home among floating mats of Sargassum seaweed. It was named in honour of the American naturalist Thomas Say.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Marine food web</span> Marine consumer-resource system

Compared to terrestrial environments, marine environments have biomass pyramids which are inverted at the base. In particular, the biomass of consumers is larger than the biomass of primary producers. This happens because the ocean's primary producers are tiny phytoplankton which grow and reproduce rapidly, so a small mass can have a fast rate of primary production. In contrast, many significant terrestrial primary producers, such as mature forests, grow and reproduce slowly, so a much larger mass is needed to achieve the same rate of primary production.

Seaweed fertiliser is organic fertilizer made from seaweed that is used in agriculture to increase soil fertility and plant growth. The use of seaweed fertilizer dates back to antiquity and has a broad array of benefits for soils. Seaweed fertilizer can be applied in a number of different forms, including refined liquid extracts and dried, pulverized organic material. Through its composition of various bioactive molecules, seaweed functions as a strong soil conditioner, bio-remediator, and biological pest control, with each seaweed phylum offering various benefits to soil and crop health. These benefits can include increased tolerance to abiotic stressors, improved soil texture and water retention, and reduced occurrence of diseases.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Great Atlantic Sargassum Belt</span> Mass of Sargassum in Atlantic Ocean

The Great Atlantic Sargassum Belt is a mass of Sargassum in the Atlantic Ocean, and is the largest macroalgae bloom in the world.

References

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  2. ↑ Hogan, C. Michael (2011). Monosson, E.; Cleveland, C.J. (eds.). "Algae § 1.3 Brown_algae". Encyclopedia of Earth. Washington DC: National Council for Science and the Environment.
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  4. ↑ Gómez de Silva, Guido 1988. Breve diccionario etimológico de la lengua española. Fondo de Cultura Económica, Mexico City, ISBN   968-16-2812-8, p. 627.
  5. ↑ Padilla, Michael J. (2000). Earth's Waters. Prentice Hall. p. 114. ISBN   9780134349404 . Retrieved 11 July 2022. Since Columbus's time, many legends about the Sargasso Sea have spread. The seaweed covering its surface was believed to be so thick that no ship could escape from it. Early writers described ancient ghost ships, rotting away as they remained trapped forever in the seaweed.
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  19. ↑ Steinberg, Peter D. (1986). "Chemical defenses and the susceptibility of tropical marine brown algae to herbivores". Oecologia. 69 (4): 628–630. Bibcode:1986Oecol..69..628S. doi:10.1007/BF00410374. PMID   28311627. S2CID   19551247.
  20. 1 2 "Sargassum Seaweed: An important element for beaches and shoreline stability. | Government of the Virgin Islands". bvi.gov.vg.
  21. ↑ Read "Managing Wastewater in Coastal Urban Areas" at NAP.edu. 1993. doi:10.17226/2049. ISBN   978-0-309-04826-2 – via www.nap.edu.
  22. 1 2 Crist, Carolyn (July 26, 2019). "Toxic seaweed a menace to Caribbean tourists". Reuters– via www.reuters.com.
  23. ↑ Schell, Jeffrey; Goodwin, Deborah; Siuda, Amy (September 1, 2015). "Recent Sargassum Inundation Events in the Caribbean: Shipboard Observations Reveal Dominance of a Previously Rare Form". Oceanography. 28 (3): 8–10. doi: 10.5670/oceanog.2015.70 .
  24. ↑ "Fact sheet" (PDF). www.nps.gov. Retrieved 2020-09-29.
  25. 1 2 3 4 5 "The Great Sargassum Disaster of 2018". essa.com. February 7, 2019.
  26. ↑ "The Sargassum Mass-Bloom of 2018". nereusprogram.org.
  27. ↑ Schell, Jeffrey M.; Goodwin, Deborah S.; Siuda, Amy N. S. (2015). "Recent Sargassum Inundation Events in the Caribbean". Oceanography. 28 (3): 8–11. doi: 10.5670/oceanog.2015.70 . JSTOR   24861895.
  28. 1 2 Schell, Jeffrey; Goodwin, Deborah; Siuda, Amy (1 September 2015). "Recent Sargassum Inundation Events in the Caribbean: Shipboard Observations Reveal Dominance of a Previously Rare Form". Oceanography. 28 (3): 8–10. doi: 10.5670/oceanog.2015.70 .
  29. ↑ Martin, Lindsay Margaret (6 May 2016). Pelagic Sargassum and Its Associated Mobile Fauna in the Caribbean, Gulf Of Mexico, and Sargasso Sea (Thesis). hdl:1969.1/157125.
  30. ↑ "Ramlogan et al 2017 sargassum influx barbados fish". 2018-06-15. Archived from the original on 2018-06-15. Retrieved 2021-11-22.
  31. ↑ Burton, Rebecca (2018-07-15). "Sargassum: Seaweed or Brown Algae". Florida Museum. Retrieved 2020-09-29.
  32. ↑ "Sargassum seaweed: limit the exposure of residents and workers to hydrogen sulphide - Agence nationale de sécurité sanitaire de l'alimentation, de l'environnement et du travail". Anses. 9 November 2018. Retrieved 2020-09-29.
  33. ↑ Crist, Carolyn (2019-07-26). "Toxic seaweed a menace to Caribbean tourists". U.S. Retrieved 2020-09-29.
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  40. ↑ Kornei, Katherine (2019-07-29). "Satellite Data Reveal Growth and Decline of Sargassum". Eos. Retrieved 2020-09-29.
  41. 1 2 Lapointe, Brian E. (1995). "A comparison of nutrient-limited productivity in Sargassum natans from neritic vs. oceanic waters of the western North Atlantic Ocean". Limnology and Oceanography. 40 (3): 625–633. Bibcode:1995LimOc..40..625L. doi: 10.4319/lo.1995.40.3.0625 .
  42. 1 2 3 "Scientists discover the biggest seaweed bloom in the world". phys.org.
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  45. ↑ News, Chelsea Harvey, E&E. "Saharan Dust Plume Slams U.S., Kicking Up Climate Questions". Scientific American.{{cite web}}: |last= has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  46. ↑ "Movement of Hurricanes: steered by the global winds". ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu.
  47. ↑ "Antilles Current | current, Atlantic Ocean". Encyclopedia Britannica.
  48. ↑ "The Caribbean Current". oceancurrents.rsmas.miami.edu.
  49. ↑ Wang, Mengqiu; Hu, Chuanmin (16 April 2017). "Predicting Sargassum blooms in the Caribbean Sea from MODIS observations: Sargassum Bloom Prediction". Geophysical Research Letters. 44 (7): 3265–3273. doi: 10.1002/2017GL072932 .
  50. ↑ "The Effects of Deforestation on Nutrient Concentrations in Tributaries of Lake Tanganyika" (PDF). www.geo.arizona.edu. Retrieved 2020-09-29.
  51. ↑ US EPA, OW (March 12, 2013). "The Sources and Solutions: Agriculture". US EPA.
  52. ↑ US EPA, OW (September 5, 2013). "Climate Change and Harmful Algal Blooms". US EPA.
  53. ↑ "Impacts of Climate Change on the Occurrence of Harmful Algal Blooms" (PDF). www.epa.gov. 2013. Retrieved 2020-09-29.

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