Laminaria

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Laminaria
Laminaria hyperborea - Kohler-s Medizinal-Pflanzen-214.jpg
Laminaria hyperborea
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Clade: Diaphoretickes
Clade: SAR
Clade: Stramenopiles
Phylum: Gyrista
Subphylum: Ochrophytina
Class: Phaeophyceae
Order: Laminariales
Family: Laminariaceae
Genus: Laminaria
J. V. Lamouroux
Species

ca. 30 species; see text

Laminaria setchellii at Montana de Oro State Park Laminariasetchellii2.jpg
Laminaria setchellii at Montana de Oro State Park

Laminaria is a genus of brown seaweed in the order Laminariales (kelp), comprising 31 species native to the north Atlantic and northern Pacific Oceans. This economically important genus is characterized by long, leathery laminae and relatively large size. Some species are called Devil's apron, due to their shape, [1] or sea colander, due to the perforations present on the lamina. [2] [ unreliable source? ] Others are referred to as tangle. Laminaria form a habitat for many fish and invertebrates. [3]

Contents

The life cycle of Laminaria has heteromorphic alternation of generations which differs from Fucus . At meiosis the male and female zoospores are produced separately, then germinate into male and female gametophytes. The female egg matures in the oogonium until the male sperm fertilizes it. [4] Life-Cycle: The most apparent form of Laminaria is its sporophyte phase, a structure composed of the holdfast, the stipe, and the blades. While it spends its time predominately in the sporophyte phase, it alternates between the sporophyte and its microscopic gametophyte phase. [5] [ unreliable source? ]

Laminaria japonica (J. E. Areschoug – Japón) [6] is now regarded as a synonym of Saccharina japonica [7] and Laminaria saccharina is now classified as Saccharina latissima . [8]

History

Laminaria arrived in China from Hokkaido, Japan in the late 1920s. Once in China, Laminaria was cultivated on a much larger industrial scale. [9] The rocky shores at Dalian, the northern coast of the Yellow Sea, along with its cold waters provided excellent growing conditions for these species. Laminaria was harvested for food and 1949 yielded 40.3 metric tons of dry weight. [9] Laminaria need cold water to survive and can only live above 36° N latitude.[ citation needed ]

In 1949, the Chinese started to commercially grow laminaria as a crop. This increased the production of dry weight to 6,200 metric tons. Farming laminaria is still a large production for China. However, since the 1980s production has dropped due to new mariculture technology . [9]

Farming practices

Laminaria is generally farmed using the floating raft method, in which young laminaria sporophytes are attached to submerged ropes. These ropes are then attached to floating rafts. [9]

Ecology

Laminaria is found in colder ocean waters, such as arctic regions. [10] Preferring to stay in regions where there are rocky shores, this allows the laminaria to attach. Due to the height of the Laminaria, they provide protection for creatures that the open ocean does not often give. Invertebrates are just one of the organisms that live among the algae. Sea snails and other invertebrates feed on the blades (leaves) of the laminaria. Other organisms, such as sea urchins, feed on the holdfasts, which can kill the algae. [11] Red sea urchins, found on the North America Pacific Coast, can decimate kelp, including Laminaria, if the urchins are not managed by sea otters. Species such as Coelopa pilipes feed and lay eggs on Laminaria when it is washed up on beaches.

The sexual life cycle of Laminaria Laminaria Life Cycle.png
The sexual life cycle of Laminaria

Life cycle

Laminaria expresses a haplo-diplophasic life history, in which it alternates from a macroscopic thallic sporophyte structure, consisting of the holdfast, a stipe, and the blades, to a filamentous, microscopic gametophyte. The sporophyte structure of laminaria can grow to 7 metres (23 ft), which is large in comparison to other algae, but still smaller than the giant kelps such as Macrocystis and Nereocystis, which can grow up to 40–50 metres (130–160 ft). On the other hand, the gametophyte structure is no more than a few millimeters in length. In opposition to the gametophyte phase, which only consists of one type of tissue, the more complex sporophyte phase is made up of different types of tissue. One of these tissues includes a sieve-like element which translocates photoassimilates. [12] These structures are very similar to mesophyll cells found in higher plant leaves. [13]

Uses

Medical

A laminaria stick may be used to slowly dilate the thermal expansion , or for surgical procedures including abortions or to facilitate the placement of an intrauterine device. The stick is made up of a bundle of dried and compressed laminaria that expands as water is absorbed. [14]

Laminaria is a source of the relatively rare element, iodine, which is commonly used to promote thyroid health. [13]

Food

Various species of Laminaria have been used for food purposes since ancient times wherever humans have encountered them. Typically, the prepared parts, usually the blade, are consumed either immediately after boiling in broth or water, or consumed after drying. The greater proportion of commercial cultivation is for algin, iodine, and mannitol, which are used in a range of industrial applications. In South Korea it is processed into a sweetmeat known as laminaria jelly, in other countries it is also used in fresh salad form, which is also canned for preservation for deliverу and selling purposes in other regions. Many countries produce and consume laminaria products, the largest being China. [15]

Energy

Due to their ability to grow underwater and in salt water, algae are being looked into as a source of biofuel. Laminaria is one of the five macroalgae farmed for products such as food, chemicals and power. Those five genera contribute to 76% of the total tonnage for farmed macroalgae. Laminaria is less desired as a renewable energy source due to its high ash content when burned. Laminaria has an ash content of 33%, while wood has about a 2% ash content when burned. Algae have a high water content requiring much energy to dry the algae before being able to properly use it. [16]

More research is being done with anaerobic digestion, which is the most promising practice to extract energy from Laminaria. There are still barriers to overcome before moving forward with anaerobic digestion, such as its cost per kwh.  [17]

Metal absorption

The ability of laminaria, along with other brown algae, to absorb heavy metals is a current area of interest regarding their use to remove heavy metals from wastewater. [18] Laminaria has been shown by recent research to have a favorable mannuronic/guluronic acid residues ratio (M/G ratio) for heavy metal absorption in its alginate. This M/G ratio is the ratio between the L-gluronate (G) and D-mannuronate (M) in the alginate, a natural anionic polymer that is found in all brown algae. This alginate is able to form a gel that contains carboxyl groups that can bind heavy metal cations such as Cu 2+
, Cd 2+
, and Pb 2+
, thereby allowing these metals to be removed from wastewater. [19]

Predator

Coelopa frigida and related flies from the genus Coelopa are known to feed, mate, and create habitats out of different species of Laminaria. This is of particular notice when the Laminaria is stranded on the beach and not when it is submerged under seawater. With increasing amounts of seaweed washing up on shores, there is an increasing recognition of Laminaria and their close pairing with Coelopa.

Species

Laminaria digitata, Cyanotype by Anna Atkins, 1843 Anna Atkins Laminaria digitata.jpg
Laminaria digitata, Cyanotype by Anna Atkins, 1843

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kelp</span> Large brown seaweeds in the order Laminariales

Kelps are large brown algae or seaweeds that make up the order Laminariales. There are about 30 different genera. Despite its appearance, kelp is not a plant but a stramenopile, a group containing many protists.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Brown algae</span> Large group of multicellular algae, comprising the class Phaeophyceae

Brown algae are a large group of multicellular algae comprising the class Phaeophyceae. They include many seaweeds located in colder waters of the Northern Hemisphere. Brown algae are the major seaweeds of the temperate and polar regions. Many brown algae, such as members of the order Fucales, commonly grow along rocky seashores. Most brown algae live in marine environments, where they play an important role both as food and as a potential habitat. For instance, Macrocystis, a kelp of the order Laminariales, may reach 60 m (200 ft) in length and forms prominent underwater kelp forests that contain a high level of biodiversity. Another example is Sargassum, which creates unique floating mats of seaweed in the tropical waters of the Sargasso Sea that serve as the habitats for many species. Some members of the class, such as kelps, are used by humans as food.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kombu</span> Edible kelp

Konbu is edible kelp mostly from the family Laminariaceae and is widely eaten in East Asia. It may also be referred to as dasima or haidai.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sea lettuce</span> Genus of seaweeds

The sea lettuces comprise the genus Ulva, a group of edible green algae that is widely distributed along the coasts of the world's oceans. The type species within the genus Ulva is Ulva lactuca, lactuca being Latin for "lettuce". The genus also includes the species previously classified under the genus Enteromorpha, the former members of which are known under the common name green nori.

<i>Fucus</i> Genus of brown algae

Fucus is a genus of brown algae found in the intertidal zones of rocky seashores almost throughout the world.

<i>Alaria esculenta</i> Edible seaweed

Alaria esculenta is an edible seaweed, also known as dabberlocks or badderlocks, or winged kelp, and occasionally as Atlantic Wakame. It is a traditional food along the coasts of the far north Atlantic Ocean. It may be eaten fresh or cooked in Greenland, Iceland, Scotland and Ireland. It is the only one of twelve species of Alaria to occur in both Ireland and in Great Britain.

<i>Saccharina</i> Genus of seaweeds

Saccharina is a genus of 24 species of Phaeophyceae. It is found in the north Atlantic Ocean and the northern Pacific Ocean at depths from 8 m to 30 m.

<i>Alaria</i> (alga) Genus of algae

Alaria is a genus of brown alga (Phaeophyceae) comprising approximately 17 species. Members of the genus are dried and eaten as a food in Western Europe, China, Korea, Japan, and South America. Distribution of the genus is a marker for climate change, as it relates to oceanic temperatures.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Seaweed</span> Macroscopic marine algae

Seaweed, or macroalgae, refers to thousands of species of macroscopic, multicellular, marine algae. The term includes some types of Rhodophyta (red), Phaeophyta (brown) and Chlorophyta (green) macroalgae. Seaweed species such as kelps provide essential nursery habitat for fisheries and other marine species and thus protect food sources; other species, such as planktonic algae, play a vital role in capturing carbon, producing at least 50% of Earth's oxygen.

<i>Saccharina japonica</i> Species of seaweed

Saccharina japonica is a marine species of the Phaeophyceae class, a type of kelp or seaweed, which is extensively cultivated on ropes between the seas of China, Japan and Korea. It has the common name sweet kelp. It is widely eaten in East Asia. A commercially important species, S. japonica is also called ma-konbu (真昆布) in Japanese, dasima (다시마) in Korean and hǎidài (海带) in Chinese. Large harvests are produced by rope cultivation which is a simple method of growing seaweeds by attaching them to floating ropes in the ocean.

<i>Laminaria digitata</i> Species of alga

Laminaria digitata is a large brown alga in the family Laminariaceae, also known by the common name oarweed. It is found in the sublittoral zone of the northern Atlantic Ocean.

<i>Saccharina latissima</i> Species of Phaeophyceae, type of kelp

Saccharina latissima is a brown alga, of the family Laminariaceae. It is known by the common names sugar kelp, sea belt, and Devil's apron, and is one of the species known to Japanese cuisine as kombu. It is found in the north Atlantic Ocean, Arctic Ocean and north Pacific Ocean. It is common along the coast of Northern Europe as far south as Galicia Spain, the coast of North America north of Massachusetts and central California, and the coast of Asia south to Korea and Japan.

<i>Laminaria hyperborea</i> Species of alga

Laminaria hyperborea is a species of large brown alga, a kelp in the family Laminariaceae, also known by the common names of tangle and cuvie. It is found in the sublittoral zone of the northern Atlantic Ocean. A variety, Laminaria hyperborea f. cucullata is known from more wave sheltered areas in Scandinavia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Aquaculture of giant kelp</span> Cultivation of seaweed

Aquaculture of giant kelp, Macrocystis pyrifera, is the cultivation of kelp for uses such as food, dietary supplements or potash. Giant kelp contains iodine, potassium, other minerals vitamins and carbohydrates.

<i>Dictyota</i> Genus of seaweed in the family Dictyotaceae

Dictyota is a genus of brown seaweed in the family Dictyotaceae. Species are predominantly found in tropical and subtropical seas, and are known to contain numerous chemicals (diterpenes) which have potential medicinal value. As at the end of 2017, some 237 different diterpenes had been identified from across the genus.

<i>Laminaria ochroleuca</i> Species of alga

Laminaria ochroleuca is a large kelp, an alga in the order Laminariales. They are commonly known as golden kelp, due to their blade colouration, distinguishing them from Laminaria hyperborea

Saccharina dentigera is a species of brown algae, in the family Laminariaceae. It is native to shallow water in the northeastern Pacific Ocean from the Gulf of Alaska to Baja California.

Phyllariopsis brevipes is a species of large brown algae, found in the subtidal zone in the Mediterranean Sea. It is the type species of the genus. Unlike other large brown macroalgae, it has a habitat requirement to grow on the living thalli of the crustose red alga Mesophyllum alternans.

<i>Laminaria nigripes</i> Species of seaweed

Laminaria nigripes is a species of kelp found in the North Atlantic and North Pacific within Arctic and subarctic waters including Vancouver Island, Haida Gawaii, Greenland, Iceland, Norway, Downeast Maine, and the Bay of Fundy. The species may be found exclusively in the Arctic, but frequent misidentification of samples has led to speculation and debate over whether the actual range is subarctic or Arctic. The species is commonly confused with Laminaria digitata and Laminaria hyperborea and is at risk from climate change.

References

  1. ↑ "Devil's Apron". Webster's Revised Unabridged Dictionary. C. & G. Merriam Co. 1913.
  2. ↑ "Devil's apron - Sea Vegetable". Archived from the original on October 16, 2008. Retrieved 2009-02-06.
  3. ↑ "Laminaria | algae". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 2017-03-30.
  4. ↑ Evert, Ray; Eichhorn, Susan (2013). Raven Biology of Plants. USA: W. H. Freeman and Company. p. 338. ISBN   978-1-4292-1961-7.
  5. ↑ Guiry, Michael. "Kelps: Laminaria and Saccharina". Archived from the original on November 19, 2007. Retrieved 2009-02-06.
  6. ↑ T. Tori (1998). An Illustrated Atlas of the Life History of Algae. Uchida Rokakuho Publishing Co., Ltd. Tokyo. ISBN   978-4-7536-4057-7.[ page needed ]
  7. ↑ M. D. Guiry & Wendy Guiry (2006-09-29). "Laminaria japonica J. E. Areschoug". AlgaeBase .
  8. ↑ Saccharina latissima (Linnaeus) J.V. Lamouroux Archived 2011-10-05 at the Wayback Machine The Seaweed Site. Retrieved 2011-09-20.
  9. 1 2 3 4 Culture of Kelp (Laminaria japonica) in China. FAO. June 1989.
  10. ↑ Singh, V; Pande, P.C.; Jain, D.K. (2009). Textbooks of Botany. Meerut, IN: Rastogi Publications.
  11. ↑ Administration, US Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric. "What lives in a kelp forest". oceanservice.noaa.gov. Retrieved 2017-04-06.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  12. ↑ Schmitz, Klaus. (September 1982). "Fine structure, distribution and frequency of plasmodesmata and pits in the cortex of Laminaria hyperborea and L. saccharina". Planta. September 1982 (5): 385–392. Bibcode:1982Plant.154..385S. doi:10.1007/BF01267803. PMID   24276264. S2CID   12562414.
  13. 1 2 Crepineau, Florent; Roscoe, Thomas; Kaas, Raymond; Kloareg, Bernard; Boyen, Catherine (April 2000). "Characterisation of complementary DNAs from the expressed sequence tag analysis of life cycle stages of Laminaria digitata (Phaeophyceae)". Plant Molecular Biology. 43 (4): 503–513. doi:10.1023/A:1006489920808. PMID   11052202. S2CID   31716499.
  14. ↑ Diedrich, Justin T.; Drey, Eleanor A.; Newmann, Sara J. (2020-05-01). "Society of Family Planning clinical recommendations: Cervical preparation for dilation and evacuation at 20–24 weeks' gestation". Contraception. 101 (5): 286–292. doi: 10.1016/j.contraception.2020.01.002 . ISSN   0010-7824. PMID   32007418.
  15. ↑ Culture of Kelp (Laminaria japonica) in China. FAO. June 1989.
  16. ↑ Milledge, John J.; Smith, Benjamin; Dyer, Philip W.; Harvey, Patricia (2014). "Macroalgae-Derived Biofuel: A Review of Methods of Energy Extraction from Seaweed Biomass" (PDF). Energies. 7 (11): 7194–7222. doi: 10.3390/en7117194 .
  17. ↑ Bruton, Tom; Dr. Lyons, Henry; Dr. Lerat, Yannick; Dr. Stanley, Michele; Rasmussen, Michael Bo (February 2009). "A Review of the Potential of Marine Algae as a Source of Biofuel in Ireland" (PDF). Sustainable Energy.
  18. ↑ Nestle, Nikolaus F.E.I.; Kimich, Rainer (March 1996). "NMR Imaging of Heavy Metal Absorption in Alginate, Immobilized Cells, and Kombu Algal Biosorbents". Biotechnology and Bioengineering. 51 (5): 538–543. doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1097-0290(19960905)51:5<538::AID-BIT5>3.0.CO;2-D . PMID   18629817. S2CID   27205577.
  19. ↑ Papageorgiou, Sergios K.; Katsaros, Fotios; Nolan, J. W.; Kanellopoulos, Nick K. (November 2006). "Heavy Metal Sorption by Calcium Alginate Beads From Laminaria digitata". Journal of Hazardous Materials. B137 (3): 1765–1772. doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2006.05.017. PMID   16797834.
  20. ↑ Yoneshigue-Valentin, Yocie (1990). "The life cycle of Laminaria abyssalis (Laminariales, Phaeophyta) en cultivo". Hydrobiologia . 204–205 (1): 461–466. doi:10.1007/BF00040271. S2CID   34208987.
  21. ↑ M. D. Guiry (2006-03-26). "Laminaria abyssalis A. B. Joly & E. B. Oliveira". AlgaeBase .
  22. ↑ M. D. Guiry (2004-09-23). "Laminaria agardhii Kjellman". AlgaeBase .
  23. ↑ Taylor (1957). Marine Algae of Northeastern Coast of North America. Ann Arbor. ISBN   978-0-472-04904-2.[ page needed ]
  24. ↑ M. D. Guiry & Olga Selivanova (2006-09-19). "Laminaria appressirhiza J. E. Petrov & V. B. Vozzhinskaya". AlgaeBase .
  25. ↑ M. D. Guiry (2006-04-24). "Laminaria brongardiana Postels & Ruprecht". AlgaeBase . Archived from the original on 2020-01-15. Retrieved 2007-06-14.
  26. 1 2 3 I. A. Abbott & G. J. Hollenberg (1976). Marine Algae of California. Stanford University Press, Stanford, California. ISBN   978-0-8047-0867-8.[ page needed ]
  27. ↑ Guiry, Michael D. (2015). "Laminaria longipes Bory de Saint-Vincent, 1826". WoRMS. World Register of Marine Species . Retrieved 21 January 2019.
  28. ↑ H. Stegenga, J. J. Bolton & R. J. Anderson (1997). Seaweeds of the South Africal West Coast. Bolus Herbarium Number 18, University of Cape Town.
  29. ↑ Guiry, M. D. (2004-09-23). "Laminaria pallida Greville". AlgaeBase . National University of Ireland, Galway.
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