Mariculture

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Salmon pens off Vestmanna in the Faroe Islands, an example of inshore mariculture Faerosk havbrug.1.jpg
Salmon pens off Vestmanna in the Faroe Islands, an example of inshore mariculture

Mariculture, sometimes called marine farming or marine aquaculture, [1] is a branch of aquaculture involving the cultivation of marine organisms for food and other animal products, in seawater. Subsets of it include (offshore mariculture), fish farms built on littoral waters (inshore mariculture), or in artificial tanks, ponds or raceways which are filled with seawater (onshore mariculture). An example of the latter is the farming of plankton and seaweed, shellfish like shrimp or oysters, and marine finfish, in saltwater ponds. Non-food products produced by mariculture include: fish meal, nutrient agar, jewellery (e.g. cultured pearls), and cosmetics.

Contents

Types

Onshore

An onshore microalgae cultivation facility in Hawaii Microalgae cultivation facility along the Kona Coast of the Big Island of Hawai'i.jpg
An onshore microalgae cultivation facility in Hawaii

Although it sounds like a paradox, mariculture is practiced onshore variously in tanks, ponds or raceways which are supplied with seawater. The distinguishing traits of onshore mariculture are the use of seawater rather than fresh, and that food and nutrients are provided by the water column, not added artificially, a great savings in cost and preservation of the species' natural diet. Examples of inshore mariculture include the farming of algae (including plankton and seaweed), marine finfish, and shellfish (like shrimp and oysters), in manmade saltwater ponds.

Inshore

Fish cages containing salmon in Loch Ailort, Scotland, an inshore water MH Lochailort.jpg
Fish cages containing salmon in Loch Ailort, Scotland, an inshore water

Inshore mariculture is farming marine species such as algae, fish, and shellfish in waters affected by the tide, which include both littoral waters and their estuarine environments, such as bays, brackish rivers, and naturally fed and flushing saltwater ponds.

Popular cultivation techniques for inshore mariculture include creating or utilizing artificial reefs, [3] [4] pens, nets, and long-line arrays of floating cages moored to the bottom. [5]

As a result of simultaneous global development and evolution over time, the term "ranch" being associated typically with inshore mariculture techniques has proved problematical. It is applied without any standardized basis to everything from marine species being raised in floating pens, nested within artificial reefs, tended in cages (by the hundreds and even thousands) in long-lined groups, and even operant conditioning migratory species to return to the waters where they were born for harvesting (also known as "enhanced stocking"). [a]

Open ocean

Raising marine organisms under controlled offshore in "open ocean" in exposed, high-energy marine environments beyond significant coastal influence[ clarify ], is a relatively new[ when? ] approach to mariculture. Open ocean aquaculture (OOA) uses cages, nets, or long-line arrays that are moored or towed.[ how? ] Open ocean mariculture has the potential to be combined with offshore energy installation systems, such as wind-farms, to enable a more effective use of ocean space. [9]

Research and commercial open ocean aquaculture facilities are in operation or under development in Panama, Australia, Chile, China, France, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Mexico, and Norway. As of 2004, two commercial open ocean facilities were operating in U.S. waters, raising threadfin near Hawaii and cobia near Puerto Rico. An operation targeting bigeye tuna recently received final approval. All U.S. commercial facilities are currently sited in waters under state or territorial jurisdiction. The largest deep water open ocean farm in the world is raising cobia 12 km off the northern coast of Panama in highly exposed sites. [10] [11]

There has been considerable discussion as to how mariculture of seaweeds can be conducted in the open ocean as a means to regenerate decimated fish populations by providing both habitat and the basis of a trophic pyramid for marine life. [12] It has been proposed that natural seaweed ecosystems can be replicated in the open ocean by creating the conditions for their growth through artificial upwelling and through submerged tubing that provide substrate. Proponents and permaculture experts recognise that such approaches correspond to the core principles of permaculture and thereby constitute marine permaculture. [13] [14] [15] [16] [17] The concept envisions using artificial upwelling and floating, submerged platforms as substrate to replicate natural seaweed ecosystems that provide habitat and the basis of a trophic pyramid for marine life. [18] Following the principles of permaculture, seaweeds and fish from marine permaculture arrays can be sustainably harvested with the potential of also sequestering atmospheric carbon, should seaweeds be sunk below a depth of one kilometer. As of 2020, a number of successful trials have taken place in Hawaii, the Philippines, Puerto Rico and Tasmania. [19] [20] [21] The idea has received substantial public attention, notably featuring as a key solution covered by Damon Gameau’s documentary 2040 and in the book Drawdown: The Most Comprehensive Plan Ever Proposed to Reverse Global Warming edited by Paul Hawken.

Species

Algae

Algaculture involves the farming of species of algae, [22] including microalgae (such as phytoplankton) and macroalgae (such as seaweed).

Uses of commercial and industrial algae cultivation include production of nutraceuticals such as omega-3 fatty acids (as algal oil) [23] [24] [25] or natural food colorants and dyes, food, fertilizers, bioplastics, chemical feedstock (raw material), protein-rich animal/aquaculture feed, pharmaceuticals, and algal fuel, [26] and can also be used as a means of pollution control and natural carbon sequestration. [27]

Shellfish

Similarly to algae cultivation, shellfish can be farmed in multiple ways in both onshore and inshore mariculture: on ropes, in bags or cages, or directly on (or within) the bottom. Shellfish mariculture does not require feed or fertilizer inputs, nor insecticides or antibiotics, making shellfish mariculture a self-supporting system. [28] Seed for shellfish cultivation is typically produced in commercial hatcheries, or by the farmers themselves. Among shellfish types raised by mariculture are shrimp, oysters (including artificial pearl cultivation), clams, mussels, abalone. [29] Shellfish can also be used in integrated multi-species cultivation techniques, where shellfish can utilize waste generated by higher trophic-level organisms.

The Māori people of New Zealand retain traditions of farming shellfish. [30]

Finfish

Finfish species raised in mariculture include salmon, cod, scallops, certain species of prawn, European lobsters, abalone and sea cucumbers. [31]

Fish species selected to be raised in saltwater pens do not have any additional artificial feed requirements, as they live off of the naturally occurring nutrients within the water column. Typical practice calls for the juveniles to be planted on the bottom of the body of water within the pen, which utilize more of the water column within their sea pen as they grow and develop. [32]

Environmental effects

Mariculture has rapidly expanded over the last two decades due to new technology, improvements in formulated feeds, greater biological understanding of farmed species, increased water quality within closed farm systems, greater demand for seafood products, site expansion and government interest. [33] [34] [35] As a consequence, mariculture has been subject to some controversy regarding its social and environmental impacts. [36] [37] Commonly identified environmental impacts from marine farms are:

  1. Wastes from cage cultures;
  2. Farm escapees and invasives;
  3. Genetic pollution and disease and parasite transfer;
  4. Habitat modification.

As with most farming practices, the degree of environmental impact depends on the size of the farm, the cultured species, stock density, type of feed, hydrography of the site, and husbandry methods. [38] The adjacent diagram connects these causes and effects.

Wastes from cage cultures

Mariculture of finfish can require a significant amount of fishmeal or other high protein food sources. [37] Originally, a lot of fishmeal went to waste due to inefficient feeding regimes and poor digestibility of formulated feeds which resulted in poor feed conversion ratios. [39]

In cage culture, several different methods are used for feeding farmed fish – from simple hand feeding to sophisticated computer-controlled systems with automated food dispensers coupled with in situ uptake sensors that detect consumption rates. [40] In coastal fish farms, overfeeding primarily leads to increased disposition of detritus on the seafloor (potentially smothering seafloor dwelling invertebrates and altering the physical environment), while in hatcheries and land-based farms, excess food goes to waste and can potentially impact the surrounding catchment and local coastal environment. [37] This impact is usually highly local, and depends significantly on the settling velocity of waste feed and the current velocity (which varies both spatially and temporally) and depth. [37] [40]

Farm escapees and invasives

The impact of escapees from aquaculture operations depends on whether or not there are wild conspecifics or close relatives in the receiving environment, and whether or not the escapee is reproductively capable. [40] Several different mitigation/prevention strategies are currently employed, from the development of infertile triploids to land-based farms which are completely isolated from any marine environment. [41] [42] [43] [44] Escapees can adversely impact local ecosystems through hybridization and loss of genetic diversity in native stocks, increase negative interactions within an ecosystem (such as predation and competition), disease transmission and habitat changes (from trophic cascades and ecosystem shifts to varying sediment regimes and thus turbidity).

The accidental introduction of invasive species is also of concern. Aquaculture is one of the main vectors for invasives following accidental releases of farmed stocks into the wild. [45] One example is the Siberian sturgeon (Acipenser baerii) which accidentally escaped from a fish farm into the Gironde Estuary (Southwest France) following a severe storm in December 1999 (5,000 individual fish escaped into the estuary which had never hosted this species before). [46] Molluscan farming is another example whereby species can be introduced to new environments by ‘hitchhiking’ on farmed molluscs. Also, farmed molluscs themselves can become dominate predators and/or competitors, as well as potentially spread pathogens and parasites. [45]

Genetic pollution, disease, and parasite transfer

One of the primary concerns with mariculture is the potential for disease and parasite transfer. Farmed stocks are often selectively bred to increase disease and parasite resistance, as well as improving growth rates and quality of products. [37] As a consequence, the genetic diversity within reared stocks decreases with every generation – meaning they can potentially reduce the genetic diversity within wild populations if they escape into those wild populations. [39] Such genetic pollution from escaped aquaculture stock can reduce the wild population's ability to adjust to the changing natural environment. Species grown by mariculture can also harbour diseases and parasites (e.g., lice) which can be introduced to wild populations upon their escape. An example of this is the parasitic sea lice on wild and farmed Atlantic salmon in Canada. [47] Also, non-indigenous species which are farmed may have resistance to, or carry, particular diseases (which they picked up in their native habitats) which could be spread through wild populations if they escape into those wild populations. Such ‘new’ diseases would be devastating for those wild populations because they would have no immunity to them. [48]

Habitat modification

With the exception of benthic habitats directly beneath marine farms, most mariculture causes minimal destruction to habitats. However, the destruction of mangrove forests from the farming of shrimps is of concern. [37] [40] Globally, shrimp farming activity is a small contributor to the destruction of mangrove forests; however, locally it can be devastating. [37] [40] Mangrove forests provide rich matrices which support a great deal of biodiversity – predominately juvenile fish and crustaceans. [40] [49] Furthermore, they act as buffering systems whereby they reduce coastal erosion, and improve water quality for in situ animals by processing material and ‘filtering’ sediments. [40] [49] [50]

Others

In addition, nitrogen and phosphorus compounds from food and waste may lead to blooms of phytoplankton, whose subsequent degradation can drastically reduce oxygen levels. If the algae are toxic, fish are killed and shellfish contaminated. [41] [51] [52] These algal blooms are sometimes referred to as harmful algal blooms, which are caused by a high influx of nutrients, such as nitrogen and phosphorus, into the water due to run-off from land based human operations. [53]

Over the course of rearing various species, the sediment on bottom of the specific body of water becomes highly metallic with influx of copper, zinc and lead that is being introduced to the area. This influx of these heavy metals is likely due to the buildup of fish waste, uneaten fish feed, and the paint that comes off the boats and floats that are used in the mariculture operations. [54]

Sustainability

Mariculture development may be sustained by basic and applied research and development in major fields such as nutrition, genetics, system management, product handling, and socioeconomics. One approach uses closed systems that have no direct interaction with the local environment. [55] However, investment and operational cost are currently significantly higher than with open cages, limiting closed systems to their current role as hatcheries. [41] Many studies have estimated that seafood will run out by 2048. [56] Farmed fish will also become crucial to feeding the growing human population that will potentially reach 9.8 billion by 2050. [57]

Benefits

Sustainable mariculture promises economic and environmental benefits. Economies of scale imply that ranching can produce fish at lower cost than industrial fishing, leading to better human diets and the gradual elimination of unsustainable fisheries. Consistent supply and quality control has enabled integration in food market channels. [41] [51] [57]

List of species farmed

Fish
Shellfish/Crustaceans
Plants

Scientific literature

Scientific literature on mariculture can be found in the following journals:

Notes

  1. ↑ As is done in Japan where fishermen raise hatchlings in a closely knitted net in a harbor, sounding an underwater horn before each feeding. When the fish are old enough they are freed from the net to mature in the open sea. During spawning season, about 80% of these fish return to their birthplace. The fishermen sound the horn and then net those fish that respond. [6] [7] [8]

See also

Related Research Articles

Aquaculture, also known as aquafarming, is the controlled cultivation ("farming") of aquatic organisms such as fish, crustaceans, mollusks, algae and other organisms of value such as aquatic plants. Aquaculture involves cultivating freshwater, brackish water, and saltwater populations under controlled or semi-natural conditions and can be contrasted with commercial fishing, which is the harvesting of wild fish. Aquaculture is also a practice used for restoring and rehabilitating marine and freshwater ecosystems. Mariculture, commonly known as marine farming, is aquaculture in seawater habitats and lagoons, as opposed to freshwater aquaculture. Pisciculture is a type of aquaculture that consists of fish farming to obtain fish products as food.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Eutrophication</span> Phenomenon where nutrients accumulate in water bodies

Eutrophication is a general term describing a process in which nutrients accumulate in a body of water, resulting in an increased growth of microorganisms that may deplete the oxygen of water. Eutrophication may occur naturally or as a result of human actions. Manmade, or cultural, eutrophication occurs when sewage, industrial wastewater, fertilizer runoff, and other nutrient sources are released into the environment. Such nutrient pollution usually causes algal blooms and bacterial growth, resulting in the depletion of dissolved oxygen in water and causing substantial environmental degradation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fish farming</span> Raising fish commercially in enclosures

Fish farming or pisciculture involves commercial breeding of fish, most often for food, in fish tanks or artificial enclosures such as fish ponds. It is a particular type of aquaculture, which is the controlled cultivation and harvesting of aquatic animals such as fish, crustaceans, molluscs and so on, in natural or pseudo-natural environments. A facility that releases juvenile fish into the wild for recreational fishing or to supplement a species' natural numbers is generally referred to as a fish hatchery. Worldwide, the most important fish species produced in fish farming are carp, catfish, salmon and tilapia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fishery</span> Raising or harvesting fish

Fishery can mean either the enterprise of raising or harvesting fish and other aquatic life or, more commonly, the site where such enterprise takes place. Commercial fisheries include wild fisheries and fish farms, both in freshwater waterbodies and the oceans. About 500 million people worldwide are economically dependent on fisheries. 171 million tonnes of fish were produced in 2016, but overfishing is an increasing problem, causing declines in some populations.

Oyster farming is an aquaculture practice in which oysters are bred and raised mainly for their pearls, shells and inner organ tissue, which is eaten. Oyster farming was practiced by the ancient Romans as early as the 1st century BC on the Italian peninsula and later in Britain for export to Rome. The French oyster industry has relied on aquacultured oysters since the late 18th century.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Algaculture</span> Aquaculture involving the farming of algae

Algaculture is a form of aquaculture involving the farming of species of algae.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute</span> Indian fisheries research facility

The Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute was established in the government of India on 3 February 1947 under the Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare and later, in 1967, it joined the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) family and emerged as a leading tropical marine fisheries research institute in the world. The Headquarters of the ICAR-CMFRI is located in Kochi, Kerala. Initially the institute focused its research efforts on creating a strong database on marine fisheries sector by developing scientific methodologies for estimating the marine fish landings and effort inputs, taxonomy of marine organisms and the biological aspects of the exploited stocks of finfish and shellfish on which fisheries management were to be based. This focus contributed significantly to development of the marine fisheries sector from a predominantly artisanal, sustenance fishery till the early sixties to that of a complex, multi-gear, multi-species fisheries.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Integrated multi-trophic aquaculture</span> Type of aquaculture

Integrated multi-trophic aquaculture (IMTA) is a type of aquaculture where the byproducts, including waste, from one aquatic species are used as inputs for another. Farmers combine fed aquaculture with inorganic extractive and organic extractive aquaculture to create balanced systems for environment remediation (biomitigation), economic stability and social acceptability.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Seaweed</span> Macroscopic marine algae

Seaweed, or macroalgae, refers to thousands of species of macroscopic, multicellular, marine algae. The term includes some types of Rhodophyta (red), Phaeophyta (brown) and Chlorophyta (green) macroalgae. Seaweed species such as kelps provide essential nursery habitat for fisheries and other marine species and thus protect food sources; other species, such as planktonic algae, play a vital role in capturing carbon and producing at least 50% of Earth's oxygen.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Aquaculture in New Zealand</span>

Aquaculture started to take off in New Zealand in the 1980s. It is dominated by mussels, oysters and salmon. In 2007, aquaculture generated about NZ$360 million in sales on an area of 7,700 hectares. $240 million was earned in exports.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Aquaculture in Australia</span> On a steady increase since 1970 accounting for 34% of seafood

Aquaculture in Australia is the country's fastest-growing primary industry, accounting for 34% of the total gross value of production of seafood. 10 species of fish are farmed in Australia, and production is dominated by southern bluefin tuna, Atlantic salmon and barramundi. Mud crabs have also been cultivated in Australia for many years, sometimes leading to over-exploitation. Traditionally, this aquaculture was limited to table oysters and pearls, but since the early 1970s, there has been significant research and commercial development of other forms of aquaculture, including finfish, crustaceans, and molluscs.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Seaweed farming</span> Farming of aquatic seaweed

Seaweed farming or kelp farming is the practice of cultivating and harvesting seaweed. In its simplest form farmers gather from natural beds, while at the other extreme farmers fully control the crop's life cycle.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Aquaculture in Canada</span>

Aquaculture is the farming of fish, shellfish or aquatic plants in either fresh or saltwater, or both. The farmed animals or plants are cared for under a controlled environment to ensure optimum growth, success and profit. When they have reached an appropriate size, they are harvested, processed, and shipped to markets to be sold. Aquaculture is practiced all over the world and is extremely popular in countries such as China, where population is high and fish is a staple part of their everyday diet.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Offshore aquaculture</span> Fish farms in waters some distance away from the coast

Offshore aquaculture, also known as open water aquaculture or open ocean aquaculture, is an emerging approach to mariculture where fish farms are positioned in deeper and less sheltered waters some distance away from the coast, where the cultivated fish stocks are exposed to more naturalistic living conditions with stronger ocean currents and more diverse nutrient flow. Existing "offshore" developments fall mainly into the category of exposed areas rather than fully offshore. As maritime classification society DNV GL has stated, development and knowledge-building are needed in several fields for the available deeper water opportunities to be realized.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Aquaculture in South Korea</span>

South Korea is a major center of aquaculture production, and the world's third largest producer of farmed algae as of 2020.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Aquaculture of giant kelp</span> Cultivation of seaweed

Aquaculture of giant kelp, Macrocystis pyrifera, is the cultivation of kelp for uses such as food, dietary supplements or potash. Giant kelp contains iodine, potassium, other minerals vitamins and carbohydrates.

Saltwater aquaponics is a combination of plant cultivation and fish rearing, systems with similarities to standard aquaponics, except that it uses saltwater instead of the more commonly used freshwater. In some instances, this may be diluted saltwater. The concept is being researched as a sustainable way to eliminate the stresses that are put on local environments by conventional fish farming practices who expel wastewater into the coastal zones, all while creating complementary crops.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Aquaculture in the United Kingdom</span>

Aquaculture in the United Kingdom is dominated by salmon farming, then by mussel production with trout being the third most important enterprise. Aquaculture in the United Kingdom represents a significant business for the UK, producing over 200,000 tonnes of fish whilst earning over £700 million in 2012 (€793 million).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Flower Msuya</span> Tanzanian scientist

Flower Ezekiel Msuya is a Tanzanian phycologist. She specialises in algaculture and integrated aquaculture.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Aquaculture in the Philippines</span>

Aquaculture in the Philippines makes up a substantial proportion of the overall output of Philippine fisheries. Aquaculture has a long history in the archipelago, with wild-caught milkfish being farmed in tidally-fed fish ponds for centuries. Modern aquaculture is carried out in freshwater, brackish water, and seawater throughout the country through a variety of methods.

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