Octopus aquaculture

Last updated

The common octopus, Octopus vulgaris Octopus vulgaris 2.jpg
The common octopus, Octopus vulgaris

Octopus aquaculture is the captive raising of octopuses and commercial sale of their meat. A complex and labor-intensive form of farming, octopus aquaculture is being driven by strong market demand in the Mediterranean and in South American and Asian countries. [1] Annual global demand for octopus more than doubled from 1980 to 2019, from roughly 180,000 to about 370,000 tons. [2] The supply of octopus has been constrained by overfishing in many key fisheries [3] and proponents of farming suggest human-induced culturing could help restock natural populations. [4] Opponents of the nascent industry argue that cephalopod intelligence and emotional capacity, as well as the solitary and carnivorous character of octopuses, make them particularly ill-suited to intensive, captive breeding. Commercial sale may stimulate market demand, hastening rather than offsetting the decline in wild stocks. [5] An announcement that a Spanish firm would begin octopus aquaculture as early as 2022 prompted ethical and scientific controversy.

Contents

Octopuses live short lives, grow quickly and mature early [6] and they typically reach 2 to 3 kg, high weights for an invertebrate. Octopuses are 75 to 90% muscle at their total live weight, [7] basically a pure protein food with very little fat. In nature there is little overlap between successive generations, [8] which makes them sensitive to changing environmental conditions. [9] It is currently difficult to culture the early life stages of octopus and maintain high survival rates for their paralarvae, [10] mainly because of high mortality rates by poor zoo-technical conditions or equipment, and also because of conspecific cannibalism. [11] A requirement for live and high-quality food is another constraint: crab zoea [12] or rotifer are necessary, since Artemia, microalgae, or pellets is insufficient. These difficulties have limited the development of fully closed life cycle octopus hatchery systems. In 2021, Nueva Pescanova Group located in Spain, announced that they had achieved many generations of Octopus vulgaris by culture; [13] the conditions octopuses are to be kept in, type of food, and killing techniques were not disclosed. [5]

Species

Graph showing the decline in the global capture production (in tonnes) of the common octopus over recent years (source FAO ) Octopus capture.png
Graph showing the decline in the global capture production (in tonnes) of the common octopus over recent years (source FAO )

The aquaculture potential of several octopuses species has been investigated in recent years, including Octopus maya (red octopus), [15] Octopus bimaculoides (California two-spot octopus), [16] Octopus ocellatus (now re-named Amphioctopus fangsiao ) [17] , Octopus mimus (changos octopus), [18] Enteroctopus megalocyathus (Patagonian red octopus) [19] and Robsonella fontaniana. [20]

The common octopus, Octopus vulgaris, appears to be the most serious candidate for aquaculture in terms of its biological and market potential. [21] It has a worldwide distribution in tropical, subtropical and temperate waters. It is a benthic species occurring from the coastal line to the outer edge of the continental shelf, at depths to 200 m and in very diverse marine habitats. [22] The common octopus is easily adapted to captive conditions and has a rapid growth rate of 5% body weight per day. [21] It also has a high feed conversion rate with 30–60% of ingested food being incorporated in its own weight, [23] [24] and a high fecundity of 100,000–500,000 eggs per female. [23]

Temperature

There is an optimum temperature at which a cold-blooded species does best in terms of growth, survival and food intake. The common octopus is sensitive to temperature, with an optimum range for commercial growth of 16–21°C. [24] Above its optimal thermal range, growth and food intake decrease, and above 23 °C loss in weight and increased mortality has been recorded. [24] A narrow thermal band can mean seasonality in growth due to seasonal variations in water temperatures. The incorporation of temperature control mechanisms, such as in the use of closed or onshore farming systems, can reduce seasonal variances in production. [24]

Nutrition

Crustaceans, such as crabs and lobster are an important dietary constituent of both natural and captive populations of octopus. [25] Fish are not as important. Fish-based diets have been shown to provide both lower growth rates and food conversion to growth ratios in captive octopus. This may be because of high lipid levels in fish flesh. [24] Cephalopods, such as octopus and squids, show low lipid digestibility as a result of low lipid requirements. Consequently, a large component of the fish feed will not be taken up. [26] Crustacean diets are favored possibly as a result of their high protein relative to lipid levels. [24]

Whether octopus farming is profitable depends in large part on how much it costs to maintain a steady supply of crustaceans. [25] Economic profitability can be maximized without significantly compromising biological productivity by incorporating a mix of fish and crustacean-based feed strategies. García García and Cerezo Velverde (2006) found a feeding regime of one day of crab followed by three days of fish can reduce the cost of producing one kg of octopus by a predicted value of €2.96. [25]

Juveniles

Commercial aquaculture so far has been confined to starting with young juveniles caught in the wild, weighing about 750 g. In Spain, these juveniles are purchased from local fishermen and transferred to offshore floating sea cages. There they are fattened with bycatch (fish, molluscs and crabs) for several months until a commercial size, about 3 kilograms, is reached. However, acquiring juveniles in this way, from the wild, further increases the fishing pressure on octopus stocks that are already managed badly, possibly producing cascades in marine ecosystems. A cost analysis of this practice found that over 40% of total costs went into acquiring the juveniles. The profitability of this approach is low, depending as it does on fishing and the supply of sub-adults, a costly and highly variable process. [27]

Paralarva

The bottleneck currently hindering the commercial development of octopus aquaculture is the difficulty of rearing octopus during their early paralarva stage. [28] [29] Paralarva is the name given to the larva of cephalopods. [10] Paralarvae are small, less than 3 millimetres at hatching, with a long planktonic life stage. Current rearing techniques are inadequate, resulting in very high mortality rates. [30] Results vary when octopus paralarvae are fed different combinations of prey. The best results have been with a mix of brine shrimp and other living prey, such as crab zoeae. [1] [28] However the survival and settlement rates of the paralarvae is typically low in such studies, highlighting the difficulties in raising octopus paralarvae. Maintaining high survival rates for paralarvae appears to be the main factor limiting the development of a fully closed life cycle octopus hatchery system. [31]

To achieve both profitable and environmentally sustainable results, much research has been focused on paralarval rearing. [29] In 2005, scientists from the principal research groups in the field concluded the key factor affecting paralarval mortality is nutrition, making nutritional research the highest priority. [31] There is "no reason not to believe that the aquacultural rearing of octopus will be of great economic potential" as soon as the rearing technology and nutritional issues have been addressed. [27] Research in these areas is promising. [27]

Ethical complications

There is growing opposition to farming octopuses due to ethical and environmental concerns. Octopuses are recognized as intelligent, sentient, and naturally solitary animals. Critics argue that confining these creatures in cramped tanks would cause immense distress, potentially leading to aggression and cannibalism. Additionally, as carnivores, farmed octopuses would require fish as feed, putting further pressure on already strained marine ecosystems. Environmental concerns include potential pollution, threats to local wildlife, and high energy and water consumption. In response to these issues, in 2024, Washington became the first U.S. state to ban octopus farming. Subsequently, a bipartisan bill was introduced in Congress to ban octopus farming nationwide and prohibit imports of farmed octopus. This legislative action reflects a growing global movement against the practice, with numerous NGOs, experts, and members of the public voicing opposition to proposed octopus farming projects. [32] [33]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Octopus</span> Soft-bodied eight-limbed order of molluscs

An octopus is a soft-bodied, eight-limbed mollusc of the order Octopoda. The order consists of some 300 species and is grouped within the class Cephalopoda with squids, cuttlefish, and nautiloids. Like other cephalopods, an octopus is bilaterally symmetric with two eyes and a beaked mouth at the centre point of the eight limbs. The soft body can radically alter its shape, enabling octopuses to squeeze through small gaps. They trail their eight appendages behind them as they swim. The siphon is used both for respiration and for locomotion, by expelling a jet of water. Octopuses have a complex nervous system and excellent sight, and are among the most intelligent and behaviourally diverse of all invertebrates.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mysida</span> Small, shrimp-like crustacean

Mysida is an order of small, shrimp-like crustaceans in the malacostracan superorder Peracarida. Their common name opossum shrimps stems from the presence of a brood pouch or "marsupium" in females. The fact that the larvae are reared in this pouch and are not free-swimming characterises the order. The mysid's head bears a pair of stalked eyes and two pairs of antennae. The thorax consists of eight segments each bearing branching limbs, the whole concealed beneath a protective carapace and the abdomen has six segments and usually further small limbs.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Freshwater prawn farming</span> Aquaculture of shrimp or prawns

A freshwater prawn farm is an aquaculture business designed to raise and produce freshwater prawns or shrimp1 for human consumption. Freshwater prawn farming shares many characteristics with, and many of the same problems as, marine shrimp farming. Unique problems are introduced by the developmental life cycle of the main species.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cephalopod intelligence</span> Measure of cognitive ability of cephalopods

Cephalopod intelligence is a measure of the cognitive ability of the cephalopod class of molluscs.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fish hatchery</span> Aquaculture facility

A fish hatchery is a place for artificial breeding, hatching, and rearing through the early life stages of animals—finfish and shellfish in particular. Hatcheries produce larval and juvenile fish, shellfish, and crustaceans, primarily to support the aquaculture industry where they are transferred to on-growing systems, such as fish farms, to reach harvest size. Some species that are commonly raised in hatcheries include Pacific oysters, shrimp, Indian prawns, salmon, tilapia and scallops.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Giant Pacific octopus</span> Species of cephalopod

The giant Pacific octopus, also known as the North Pacific giant octopus, is a large marine cephalopod belonging to the genus Enteroctopus and Enteroctopodidae family. Its spatial distribution encompasses much of the coastal North Pacific, from the Mexican state of Baja California, north along the United States' West Coast, and British Columbia, Canada; across the northern Pacific to the Russian Far East, south to the East China Sea, the Yellow Sea, the Sea of Japan, Japan's Pacific east coast, and around the Korean Peninsula. It can be found from the intertidal zone down to 2,000 m (6,600 ft), and is best-adapted to colder, oxygen- and nutrient-rich waters. It is the largest octopus species on earth and can often be found in aquariums and research facilities in addition to the ocean. E. dofleini play an important role in maintaining the health and biodiversity of deep sea ecosystems, cognitive research, and the fishing industry.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sharptooth houndshark</span> Species of shark

The sharptooth houndshark or spotted gully shark is a species of houndshark in the family Triakidae found in shallow inshore waters from southern Angola to South Africa. Favoring sandy areas near rocky reefs and gullies, it is an active-swimming species that usually stays close to the bottom. This robust shark reaches 1.7 m (5.6 ft) in length and has characteristically large, rounded fins; the pectoral fins in particular are broad and sickle-shaped in adults. It also has a short, blunt snout and long furrows around its mouth. This species is gray or bronze in color above, with variable amounts of black spotting.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Common octopus</span> Species of cephalopod

The common octopus is a mollusk belonging to the class Cephalopoda. Octopus vulgaris is one of the most studied of all octopus species, and also one of the most intelligent. It ranges from the eastern Atlantic, extends from the Mediterranean Sea and the southern coast of England, to the southern coast of South Africa. It also occurs off the Azores, Canary Islands, and Cape Verde Islands. The species is also common in the Western Atlantic.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Integrated multi-trophic aquaculture</span> Type of aquaculture

Integrated multi-trophic aquaculture (IMTA) is a type of aquaculture where the byproducts, including waste, from one aquatic species are used as inputs for another. Farmers combine fed aquaculture with inorganic extractive and organic extractive aquaculture to create balanced systems for environment remediation (biomitigation), economic stability and social acceptability.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Patagonian red octopus</span> Medium-sized octopus, and the type species for the genus Enteroctopus

Enteroctopus megalocyathus, also known as Patagonian red octopus (EN), Pulpo del sur (Chile) and Pulpo colorado (Argentina), is a medium-sized octopus and the type species for the genus Enteroctopus.

<i>Sepiella inermis</i> Species of cuttlefish

Sepiella inermis is a species of cuttlefish in the family Sepiidae. It is indigenous to the Indo-Pacific region. In this region, S. inermis is an economically important species, and is sold and eaten.

<i>Octopus tetricus</i> Species of mollusc

Octopus tetricus, the gloomy octopus, the common Sydney octopus, or the peachy octopus, is a species of octopus from the subtropical waters of eastern Australia and northern New Zealand. O.tetricus belongs to the Octopus vulgaris species group. All species within the O. vulgaris group are similar in morphology, behaviour, and physiology. The English translation of O. tetricus (Latin) is 'the gloomy octopus'. It is a significant species in the fishing industry in Australia. They play an important role in energy flux between trophic levels in the marine environment.

<i>Pinnoctopus cordiformis</i> Species of mollusc

Pinnoctopus cordiformis is a species of octopus found around the coasts of New Zealand. It is one of the most common species of octopus in the country.

<i>Sthenoteuthis oualaniensis</i> Species of squid

The purpleback flying squid or purpleback squid is a species of cephalopod in the family Ommastrephidae, occurring in the Indo-Pacific. It is considered one of the most abundant large squids.

Octopus maya, known colloquially as the Mexican four-eyed octopus, is a shallow water octopus that can be found in the tropical Western Atlantic Ocean. It is common to sea grass prairies and coral formations. The species was initially discovered in an octopus fishery in Campeche Mexico, where its close external resemblance to Octopus vulgaris led to its mistaken grouping with the other species. O. maya makes up 80% of octopus catch in the Yucatán Peninsula, while O. vulgaris makes up the remaining 20%.

<i>Wunderpus photogenicus</i> Species of cephalopod

Wunderpus photogenicus, the wunderpus octopus, is a small-bodied species of octopus with distinct white and rusty brown coloration. 'Wunderpus' from German "wunder" meaning 'marvel or wonder'.

<i>Octopus insularis</i> Species of octopus

Octopus insularis is a species of octopus described in 2008 from individuals found off the coast of Brazil, with a potentially much larger range.

<i>Octopus sinensis</i> Species of octopus

Octopus sinensis is a mollusk belonging to the class Cephalopoda. Octopus sinensis is a well-known shallow-water benthic octopus species found in the coastal, temperature waters of South Korea, China, and Japan, with the species name, sinensis being Latin for Chinese. Octopus sinensis is closely related to the Atlantic and Mediterranean common octopus, Octopus vulgaris. Because of the morphological similarities, O. sinensis was considered synonymous with Octopus vulgaris until 2017. Octopus sinensis are carnivores that prey upon on many shallow-water animals such as crustaceans and mollusks.

<i>Amphioctopus aegina</i> Species of mollusc

Amphioctopus aegina, commonly referred to as the marbled octopus or the sandbird octopus, is a bottom dwelling species residing in the coastal zone of the Indo-West Pacific. Planktonic hatchlings and eggs are laid by females predominantly during the months of January and October, however they have been known to reproduce year-round.

References

  1. 1 2 Iglesias, J., Otero, J.J., Moxica, C., Fuentes, L., Sánchez, F.J. (2004) "The completed life cycle of the octopus (Octopus vulgaris, Cuvier) under culture conditions: paralarval rearing using Artemia and zoeae, and first data on juvenile growth up to 8 months of age" Aquac. Int. 12: 481–487.
  2. ↑ Root, Tik (21 August 2019). "Inside the Race to Build the World's First Commercial Octopus Farm". Time Magazine . Retrieved 9 January 2022.
  3. ↑ FAO (2010) The State of the World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2010 . FAO, Rome. Page 41.
  4. ↑ Nabhitabhata, Jaruwat; Segawa, Susumu (2014), Iglesias, José; Fuentes, Lidia; Villanueva, Roger (eds.), "Aquaculture to Restocking", Cephalopod Culture, Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, pp. 113–130, doi:10.1007/978-94-017-8648-5_7, ISBN   978-94-017-8648-5 , retrieved 2021-11-21
  5. 1 2 Marshall, Claire (20 December 2021). "The world's first octopus farm - should it go ahead?". BBC. Retrieved 8 January 2022.
  6. ↑ Amodio, Piero; Boeckle, Markus; Schnell, Alexandra K.; Ostojíc, Ljerka; Fiorito, Graziano; Clayton, Nicola S. (2019-01-01). "Grow Smart and Die Young: Why Did Cephalopods Evolve Intelligence?". Trends in Ecology & Evolution. 34 (1): 45–56. Bibcode:2019TEcoE..34...45A. doi: 10.1016/j.tree.2018.10.010 . ISSN   0169-5347. PMID   30446408. S2CID   53567421.
  7. ↑ Semmens, J. M.; Pecl, G. T.; Villanueva, R.; Jouffre, D.; Sobrino, I.; Wood, J. B.; Rigby, P. R. (2004-06-24). "Understanding octopus growth: patterns, variability and physiology". Marine and Freshwater Research. 55 (4): 367–377. doi:10.1071/MF03155. ISSN   1448-6059.
  8. ↑ Boyle, P.R., Rodhouse, P.G. (2005) Cephalopods: ecology and fisheries Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN   978-0-632-06048-1.
  9. ↑ Pierce, Graham J.; Valavanis, Vasilis D.; Guerra, Angel; Jereb, Patricia; Orsi-Relini, Lydia; Bellido, Jose M.; Katara, Isidora; Piatkowski, Uwe; Pereira, João; Balguerias, Eduardo; Sobrino, Ignacio (2008-10-01). "A review of cephalopod–environment interactions in European Seas". Hydrobiologia. 612 (1): 49–70. doi:10.1007/s10750-008-9489-7. ISSN   1573-5117. S2CID   23789779.
  10. 1 2 Institute of Malacology.; Malacology, Institute of; Michigan, University of (1988). Malacologia. Vol. 29. [Ann Arbor: Institute of Malacology].
  11. ↑ Ibáñez, Christian M.; Keyl, Friedemann (2010-03-01). "Cannibalism in cephalopods". Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries. 20 (1): 123–136. Bibcode:2010RFBF...20..123I. doi:10.1007/s11160-009-9129-y. ISSN   1573-5184. S2CID   38200526.
  12. ↑ Villanueva, Roger (1994-12-01). "Decapod crab zoeae as food for rearing cephalopod paralarvae". Aquaculture. 128 (1): 143–152. Bibcode:1994Aquac.128..143V. doi:10.1016/0044-8486(94)90109-0. ISSN   0044-8486. S2CID   85200058.
  13. ↑ "Nueva Pescanova will commercialize the first octopus raised in aquaculture in the summer of 2022". Spain's News. 2021-11-08. Retrieved 2021-11-21.
  14. ↑ Octopus vulgaris FAO: Species Fact Sheets, Rome.
  15. ↑ Rosas, C., Cuzon, G., Pascual, C., Gaxiola, G., Chay, Lòpez, N., Maldonado, T., Domingues, P.M. (2007) "Energy balance of Octopus maya fed crab or an artificial diet" Marine Biology,152: 371–381.
  16. ↑ Solorzano, Y., Viana, M.T., López, L.Mc, Correa, J.G.,True, C.C., Rosas, C. (2009) "Response of newly hatched Octopus bimaculoides fed enriched Artemia salina: Growth performance, ontogeny of the digestive enzyme and tissue amino acid content" Aquaculture,289: 84–90.
  17. ↑ Segawa, S., Nomoto, A. (2002) "Laboratory growth, feeding, oxygen consumption and ammonia excretion of Octopus ocellatus" Bulletin of Marine Science,71: 801–813.
  18. ↑ Baltazar, P., Rodríguez, P., Rivera, W., Valdivieso, V. (2000) "Cultivo experimental de Octopus mimus, Gould 1852 en perú" Revista Peruana de Biología,7: 151–160.
  19. ↑ Uriarte, Íker; Farías, Ana (2014), Iglesias, José; Fuentes, Lidia; Villanueva, Roger (eds.), "Enteroctopus megalocyathus", Cephalopod Culture, Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, pp. 365–382, doi:10.1007/978-94-017-8648-5_19, ISBN   978-94-017-8648-5 , retrieved 2021-11-21
  20. ↑ Uriarte, Íker; Farías, Ana (2014), Iglesias, José; Fuentes, Lidia; Villanueva, Roger (eds.), "Robsonella fontaniana", Cephalopod Culture, Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, pp. 467–475, doi:10.1007/978-94-017-8648-5_25, ISBN   978-94-017-8648-5 , retrieved 2021-11-21
  21. 1 2 Iglesias J., Sánchez F.J. and Otero J.J. (1997) "Primeras experiencias sobre el cultivo integral del pulpo (Octopus vulgaris, Cuvier) en el Instituto Español de Oceanografía". In: Costa J., Abellán E., García García B., Ortega A. and Zamora S. (Eds.), VI Congreso Nacional de Acuicultura, Cartagena, Spain, pp. 221–226.
  22. ↑ Guerra, A. (1992) "Mollusca: Cephalopoda" In: Ramos, M.A., et al. (Eds.) Fauna Iberica, vol. 1. Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales, CSIC, Madrid, p. 327. ISBN   84-00-07010-0.
  23. 1 2 Mangold, K.M. (1983) "Octopus vulgaris". In: Boyle, P.R. (Ed.), Cephalopod Life Cycles, vol. 1. Academic Press, London, pp. 335–364.
  24. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Aguado, F., García García, B. (2002) "Growth and food intake models in Octopus vulgaris Cuvier/1797: influence of body weight, temperature, sex and diet" Aquac. Int. 10: 361–377.
  25. 1 2 3 García García, B., Cerezo Valverde, J. (2006) "Optimal proportions of crabs and fish in diet for common octopus (Octopus vulgaris) ongrowing" Aquaculture,253: 502–511.
  26. ↑ Lee P.G. (1994) "Nutrition of cephalopods: Fueling the system" In: Pörtner H.O., O’Dor R.K. and Mac- millan D.L. (eds), Physiology of Cephalopod Molluscs: Lifestyle and Performance Adaptations Gordon & Brench Publishers, Switzerland, pp. 35–51.
  27. 1 2 3 García García, J., Rodriguez Gonzalez, L.M., García García, B. (2004) "Cost analysis of octopus ongrowing installation in Galicia" Span. Jour. Agr. Res.2(4): 521-537.
  28. 1 2 Carrasco, J.F., Arronte, J.C., Rodríguez, C. (2006) "Paralarval rearing of the common octopus, Octopus vulgaris (Cuvier)" Aquac. Res.37: 1601–1605.
  29. 1 2 Vaz-Pires, P., Seixas, P., Barbosa, A. (2004) "Aquaculture potential of the common octopus (Octopus vulgaris Cuvier, 1797): a review" Aquaculture , 238(1–4): 221–238.
  30. ↑ Moxica, C; F. Linares, J. J. Otero, J. Iglesias and F. J. Sánchez(2002) "Cultivo intensivo de paralarvas de pulpo, Octopus vulgaris Cuvier, 1797, en tanques de 9 m3" Archived 2012-06-30 at the Wayback Machine Bol. Inst. Esp. Oceanogr., 18 (1-4): 31-36.
  31. 1 2 Iglesiasa J.; F.J. Sáncheza, J.G.F. Bersanob, J.F. Carrascoc, J. Dhontd, L. Fuentesa, F. Linarese, J.L. Muñozf, S. Okumurag, J. Rooh, T. van der Meereni, E.A.G. Vidalj and R. Villanuevak (2007) "Rearing of Octopus vulgaris paralarvae: Present status, bottlenecks and trends" Aquaculture,266 (1-4): 1–15.
  32. ↑ Lara, Elena (2024-04-17). "Reckless and harsh octopus farming plans must be stopped". euronews.
  33. ↑ Chappell, Bill (2024-07-25). "Octopus farming in the U.S. would be banned under a new bill in Congress". NPR.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.