Haliotis cracherodii

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Haliotis cracherodii
Haliotis cracherodii.JPG
Haliotis cracherodii in situ
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Mollusca
Class: Gastropoda
Subclass: Vetigastropoda
Order: Lepetellida
Family: Haliotidae
Genus: Haliotis
Species:
H. cracherodii
Binomial name
Haliotis cracherodii
Leach, 1814
Synonyms [2]
  • Haliotis bonitaOrcutt, 1900
  • Haliotis californiensisSwainson, 1822
  • Haliotis expansaTalmadge, 1954
  • Haliotis glabraSchubert & Wagner, 1829
  • Haliotis holzneriHemphil, 1907
  • Haliotis imperforata Dall, 1919
  • Haliotis lususFinlay, 1927
  • Haliotis splendidulaWilliamson, 1893

Haliotis cracherodii, the black abalone, is a species of large edible sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Haliotidae, the abalones. [3]

Contents

This species is relatively small compared with most of the other abalone species from the eastern Pacific, and it has a relatively smooth dark shell.

This used to be the most abundant large marine mollusk on the west coast of North America [ citation needed ], but now, because of overfishing and the withering syndrome, it has much declined in population and the IUCN Red List has classed the black abalone as Critically Endangered.

Taxonomy

Haliotis cracherodii comprises two subspecies: [2]

Description

Dorsal view of a shell of Haliotis cracherodii Haliotis cracherodii.jpg
Dorsal view of a shell of Haliotis cracherodii

The coloration is dark brown, dark green, dark blue or almost black. [4] The silvery interior of the shell shows a pale pinkish and greenish iridescence. The exterior of the shell is smoother than most abalones, or may have low obsolete coarse spiral lirae and lines of growth. The shell is oval, evenly convex, the two sides equally curved. The back of the shell is regularly convex, with little algal growth. [4] The shell is not carinated at the row of holes. The spire is near the margin. The cavity of the spire is minute, concealed or nearly so. The muscle scar is generally not distinct. There are usually five to seven small, open respiratory holes, or pores, along the left side of the shell [4] and the rims of the holes are flush with the rest of the shell. These holes collectively make up what is known as the selenizone which form as the shell grows. The columellar plate is not truncate below, sloping inward, its face concave. The rear of the shell is spiralled, and the mantle, foot and tentacles are black. [5] The interior of the shell is pearly with pink and green iridescence. [4]

The black abalone's shell length can reach a maximum of 20 cm (7.9 in), being typically 10–14 cm (3.9–5.5 in) long. [6]

Anatomy of Haliotis cracherodii Haliotis cracherodii anatomy.jpg
Anatomy of Haliotis cracherodii

In the living animal, the tentacles on the epipodium, the mantle, and the foot are black. [6]

Distribution

Black abalones can be found along the Pacific coast of the United States from Mendocino County, California to Cabo San Lucas, Baja California, Mexico. [7]

Prehistoric distribution has been confirmed along much of this range from archaeological recovery at a variety of Pacific coastal Native American sites. For example, Chumash peoples in central California were known to have been harvesting black abalone approximately a millennium earlier in the Morro Bay area. [8]

The subspecies Haliotis cracherodii californiensis is found around Guadalupe Island, off Baja California (Mexico).

Ecology

Habitat

Two black abalone shells in a tide pool at low tide Tidepools 300.jpg
Two black abalone shells in a tide pool at low tide

Black abalones cling to rocky surfaces in the low intertidal zone, up to 6 m deep. They can typically be found wedged into crevices, cracks, and holes during low tide. They generally occur in areas of moderate to high surf. [6] Juveniles tend to reside in crevices to reduce their risk of predation, but the larger adults will move out onto rock surfaces. [9]

Life cycle

Life cycle of Haliotis cracherodii Haliotis cracherodii life cycle.jpg
Life cycle of Haliotis cracherodii

Black abalone reach sexual maturity at 3 years and can live 30 years or more. [6] [10] Spawning occurs in spring and early summer; occasionally, a second spawn occurs in the fall. [10] Black abalone are broadcast spawners, and successful spawning requires that individuals be grouped closely together. Larvae are free-swimming for between 5 and 14 days before they settle onto hard substrate, usually near larger individuals, [10] where they then metamorphose into their adult form, develop a shell and settle onto a rock. [9] Juveniles do not tend to disperse great distances, and current populations of black abalone are generally composed of individuals that were spawned locally. Juveniles settle in crevices and remain hidden until they reach approximately 4 inches in length. At that point, adults congregate in more exposed areas such as rocks and in tide pools. [10] They are thought to be able to live for between 25 and 75 years, and will begin to reproduce between three and seven years. [9]

Feeding habits

Black abalones are herbivorous gastropods, and feed mostly on drift algae and kelp. Their primary food species depend on the habitat. In southern California habitats, black abalones are thought to feed on the giant kelp ( Macrocystis pyrifera ) and feather boa kelp ( Egregia menziesii ), while in central and northern California habitats they feed on the bull kelp ( Nereocystis leutkeana ). [6]

Interspecific relationships

Predators of this species other than mankind are sea otters (such as the southern sea otter, Enhydra lutris ), fish (such as the California sheephead, Semicossyphus pulcher ) and invertebrates, including crustaceans such as the striped shore crab, Pachygrapsus crassipes , and spiny lobsters. [6] [11] Competition for space with other species (such as the sea urchins Strongylocentrotus purpuratus and Strongylocentrotus franciscanus ) is also frequent. [6]

Human uses

Humans have harvested black abalones along the California Coast for at least 10,000 years. On San Miguel Island, archaeological evidence shows that the Island Chumash people and their ancestors ate black abalone for millennia and also used the shells to make fishhooks, beads, and ornaments. After the Chumash and other California Indians were devastated by European diseases, and sea otters were nearly eradicated from California waters by the historic fur trade, black abalone populations rebounded and attracted an intensive intertidal fishery conducted primarily by Chinese immigrants from the 1850s to about 1900. [10]

Conservation status

Black abalone are listed on the International Union for Conservation of Nature's Red List as Critically Endangered (CR A4e). [9] On June 23, 1999, the U.S. National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) designated the black abalone as a candidate for protection under the Endangered Species Act (64 FR 33466). [12] On December 21, 2006, the Center for Biological Diversity submitted a petition to NMFS to list the black abalone. [13] On January 11, 2008, NMFS completed their status review of the species and proposed that it be listed as endangered. [14] [15] Black abalone were listed as endangered on January 14, 2009. [16] The NMFS designated critical habitat for the endangered black abalone on October 27, 2011. [17] The state of California has introduced an Abalone Recovery Management Plan to guide conservation efforts. [18]

Black abalone have dramatically declined in numbers throughout their historical range, and are locally extirpated in certain areas. This decline was initiated by overfishing. Following World War II, the California abalone fishery was not managed for individual species. Therefore, it resulted in a systematic depletion of various abalone species as the fishery over-harvested one species and then moved on to the next in an attempt to meet demand. [10] Black abalone were the last to be targeted, with the peak harvest occurring in the 1970s. Additionally, improved harvesting technologies that expanded the harvesting areas and supported larger harvests per unit effort were not initiated. [10] Now, all abalone fisheries in California are managed by the California Department of Fish and Game, which restricts the size of abalones caught, and the season in which harvesting can take place. [9] In Mexico, there is a total allowable catch limit for black abalones. [9] Even though harvesting black abalone is regulated in California, poaching still occurs. Other threats include coastal development for residential areas, harbours and waste discharges, compounded by commercial and recreational fishing of the black abalone. [9]

The depleted stocks of black abalone were further reduced by withering syndrome, first discovered in 1985, when commercial fishermen reported large numbers of empty shells and dying abalones on the shores of several of the Californian Channel Islands (including the islands of Santa Cruz, Anacapa, Santa Rosa, Santa Barbara, San Miguel, and San Clemente). [10] [11] This disease impairs the production of digestive enzymes, effectively starving the abalone to death. Following onset of symptoms, the animal usually quickly dies. In many locations, percentages greater than 90% of individuals have been lost, and in some places, a total loss of the black abalone population occurred. [9] The disease spread from the Channel Islands to the mainland coast in 1992, where it devastated most populations in warmer waters south of Point Conception or in locally warmer waters further north. [6] [19] [20]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Abalone</span> Common name for a group of sea snails

Abalone is a common name for any of a group of small to very large marine gastropod molluscs in the family Haliotidae. Other common names are ear shells, sea ears, and, rarely, muttonfish or muttonshells in parts of Australia, ormer in the UK, perlemoen in South Africa, and pāua in New Zealand. Abalones are marine snails. Their taxonomy puts them in the family Haliotidae, which contains only one genus, Haliotis, which once contained six subgenera. These subgenera have become alternative representations of Haliotis. The number of species recognized worldwide ranges between 30 and 130 with over 230 species-level taxa described. The most comprehensive treatment of the family considers 56 species valid, with 18 additional subspecies. The shells of abalones have a low, open spiral structure, and are characterized by several open respiratory pores in a row near the shell's outer edge. The thick inner layer of the shell is composed of nacre (mother-of-pearl), which in many species is highly iridescent, giving rise to a range of strong, changeable colors which make the shells attractive to humans as decorative objects, jewelry, and as a source of colorful mother-of-pearl. The flesh of abalones is widely considered to be a desirable food, and is consumed raw or cooked by a variety of cultures.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Channel Islands (California)</span> Archipelago off the coast of southern California, US

The Channel Islands are an eight-island archipelago located within the Southern California Bight in the Pacific Ocean, off the coast of California. The four Northern Channel Islands are part of the Transverse Ranges geologic province, and the four Southern Channel Islands are part of the Peninsular Ranges province. Five of the islands are within the Channel Islands National Park, and the waters surrounding these islands make up Channel Islands National Marine Sanctuary. The Nature Conservancy was instrumental in establishing the Channel Islands National Marine Sanctuary.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pāua</span> Māori name for several species of sea snail

Pāua is the Māori name given to three New Zealand species of large edible sea snails, marine gastropod molluscs which belong to the family Haliotidae.

<i>Haliotis sorenseni</i> Species of gastropod

The white abalone, scientific name Haliotis sorenseni, is a species of large sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Haliotidae, the abalones.

<i>Haliotis australis</i> Species of gastropod

Haliotis australis, common name the queen pāua,yellowfoot pāua, or austral abalone, is a species of edible sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Haliotidae, the abalones.

<i>Haliotis kamtschatkana</i> Species of gastropod

Haliotis kamtschatkana, common name the northern abalone, threaded abalone, or pinto abalone, is a species of large sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusc in the family Haliotidae, the abalones.

<i>Haliotis asinina</i> Species of gastropod

Haliotis asinina, common name the ass's-ear abalone, is a fairly large species of sea snail, a tropical gastropod mollusk in the family Haliotidae, the abalones, also known as ormers or pāua. Both the common name and the scientific name are based on the shape of the shell, which is long, narrow and curved, resembling the shape of a donkey's ear.

<i>Haliotis rufescens</i> Species of gastropod

Haliotis rufescens is a species of very large edible sea snail in the family Haliotidae, the abalones, ormers (British) or pāua. It is distributed from British Columbia, Canada, to Baja California, Mexico. It is most common in the southern half of its range.

<i>Haliotis corrugata</i> Species of gastropod

The pink abalone, scientific name Haliotis corrugata, is a species of large edible sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Haliotidae, the abalones.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pleurotomariacea</span> Superfamily of molluscs

Pleurotomariacea is one of two names that are used for a taxonomic superfamily of sea snails that are an ancient lineage and are well represented in the fossil record. The name Pleurotomariacea is used by paleontologists, who, because they usually have only the hard parts of mollusks to study, often use a slightly different scheme of classification from that used by scientists who study living mollusks.

<i>Haliotis pourtalesii</i> Species of gastropod

Haliotis pourtalesii, common name Pourtale's abalone, is a rare species of deepwater sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Haliotidae, the abalones.

<i>Haliotis rubra</i> Species of gastropod

The blacklip abalone, Haliotis rubra, is an Australian species of large, edible sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Haliotidae, the abalones.

<i>Haliotis coccoradiata</i> Species of gastropod

Haliotis coccoradiata, common name the reddish-rayed abalone, is a species of sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Haliotidae, the abalones.

<i>Haliotis cyclobates</i> Species of gastropod

Haliotis cyclobates, common name the whirling abalone or the circular ear shell, is a species of sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Haliotidae, the abalones.

<i>Haliotis fulgens</i> Species of gastropod

Haliotis fulgens, commonly called the green abalone, is a species of large sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusc in the family Haliotidae, the abalones. The shell of this species is usually brown, and is marked with many low, flat-topped ribs which run parallel to the five to seven open respiratory pores that are elevated above the shell's surface. The inside of the shell is an iridescent blue and green.

<i>Haliotis pulcherrima</i> Species of gastropod

Haliotis pulcherrima is a species of sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Haliotidae, the abalones.

<i>Haliotis rubiginosa</i> Species of gastropod

Haliotis rubiginosa, common name the Lord Howe abalone, is a species of sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Haliotidae, the abalones.

<i>Haliotis rugosa</i> Species of gastropod

Haliotis rugosa, common name the many-holed abalone, is a species of sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Haliotidae, the abalones.

<i>Haliotis walallensis</i> Species of gastropod

Haliotis walallensis, common name the flat abalone, is a species of sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Haliotidae, the abalones.

<i>Haliotis</i> Genus of gastropods

Haliotis, common name abalone, is the only genus in the family Haliotidae.

References

This article incorporates text from the ARKive fact-file "Haliotis cracherodii" under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License and the GFDL .

  1. ↑ Peters, H. & Rogers-Bennett, L. (2021). "Haliotis cracherodii". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . 2021: e.T41880A78775277. doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2021-1.RLTS.T41880A78775277.en .{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  2. 1 2 Haliotis cracherodii Leach, 1814 . Retrieved through: World Register of Marine Species  on 5 October 2010.
  3. ↑ Oliver, A. P. H. (1975). The Hamlyn Guide to Shells of the World. The Hamlyn Publishing Group Limited. p. 320. ISBN   0-600-34397-9.
  4. 1 2 3 4 Multi-Agency Rocky Intertidal Network. (February, 2005) – via ARKive
  5. ↑ George Washington Tryon, Manual of Conchology vol. XII, p. 76 and 79; 1890
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 "Black Abalone (Haliotis cracherodii)". National Marine Fishery Services – Threatened & Endangered Species. NOAA. Retrieved 15 June 2010.
  7. ↑ Oliver, A.P.H. (2004). Guide to Seashells of the World. Buffalo: Firefly Books. 23.
  8. ↑ Hogan, C. M. "Los Osos Back Bay". The Megalithic Portal. Retrieved 15 June 2010.
  9. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Smith, G., Stamm, C. & Petrovic, F. (2003). Haliotis cracherodii. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2014.2.
  10. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Haaker, P. L.; et al. (2001). "Abalone". California's Living Marine Resources: A Status Report (PDF). California Department of Fish and Game. pp. 89–97. Archived from the original on 14 June 2011. Retrieved 15 June 2010.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
  11. 1 2 Lafferty, K. D.; Kuris, A. M. (1993). "Mass mortality of abalone Haliotis cracherodii on the California Channel Islands: tests of epidemiological hypotheses" (PDF). Marine Ecology Progress Series. 96: 239–248. Bibcode:1993MEPS...96..239L. doi: 10.3354/meps096239 .
  12. ↑ Endangered Species Act (ESA). nmfs.noaa.gov
  13. ↑ PETITION TO LIST THE BLACK ABALONE (HALIOTIS CHRACHERODII) AS THREATENED OR ENDANGERED UNDER THE ENDANGERED SPECIES ACT. Center for Biological Diversity. December 21, 2006
  14. ↑ VanBlaricom, Glenn et al. (January, 2009) Status Review Report for Black Abalone (Haliotis cracherodii Leach, 1814). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Marine Fisheries Service
  15. ↑ "73 FR 1986" (PDF). Federal Register. 73 (8): 1986. January 11, 2008.
  16. ↑ "74 FR 1937" (PDF). Federal Register. 74 (9): 1937. January 14, 2009. Archived from the original (PDF) on February 15, 2013.
  17. ↑ NMFS. Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants: Final Rulemaking To Designate Critical Habitat for Black Abalone.Federal Register;; v76, (October 27, 2011), 66805-66844.
  18. ↑ Abalone Recovery Management Plan Archived 2008-01-18 at the Wayback Machine . dfg.ca.gov
  19. ↑ Moore, J. D.; Finley, C. A; Robbins, T. T; Friedman, C. S. (2002). "Withering Syndrome and restoration of Southern California abalone populations" (PDF). CalCOFI. 43: 112–117. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-11-23.
  20. ↑ Bower, S.M. (2006). Withering Syndrome of Abalone. Fisheries and Oceans Canada

Further reading

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