In the marine environment, the antimicrobial/algaecidal properties of copper alloys prevent biofouling, which can briefly be described as the undesirable accumulation, adhesion, and growth of microorganisms, plants, algae, tube worms, barnacles, mollusks, and other organisms on man-made marine structures.[6] By inhibiting microbial growth, copper alloy aquaculture pens avoid the need for costly net changes that are necessary with other materials. The resistance of organism growth on copper alloy nets also provides a cleaner and healthier environment for farmed fish to grow and thrive.
In addition to their antifouling benefits, copper alloys have strong structural and corrosion-resistant properties in marine environments.
It is the combination of all of these properties – antifouling, high strength, and corrosion resistance – that has made copper alloys a desirable material for such marine applications as condenser tubing, water intake screens, ship hulls, offshore structure, and sheathing. In the past 25 years or so,[when?] the benefits of copper alloys have caught the attention of the marine aquaculture industry. The industry is now actively deploying copper alloy netting and structural materials in commercial large-scale fish farming operations around the world.
Much has been written about the degradation and depletion of natural fish stocks in rivers, estuaries, and the oceans (see also Overfishing).[7][8] Because industrial fishing has become extremely efficient, ocean stocks of large fish, such as tuna, cod, and halibut have declined by 90% in the past 50 years.[9][10][11]
Aquaculture, an industry that has emerged only in recent decades, has become one of the fastest growing sectors of the world food economy.[2] Aquaculture already supplies more than half of the world's demand for fish.[12] This percentage is predicted to increase dramatically over the next few decades.
The problem of biofouling
Copper alloy mesh installed at an Atlantic salmon fish farm in Tasmania. Foreground: the chain link copper alloy mesh resting on a dock. Distant background: copper alloy mesh pens are installed on the fish farm.
Biofouling is one of the biggest problems in aquaculture.[13] Biofouling occurs on non-copper materials in the marine environment, including fish pen surfaces and nettings.[2] For example, it was noted that the open area of a mesh immersed for only seven days in a Tasmanian aquaculture operation decreased by 37% as a result of biofouling.[14]
The biofouling process begins when algaespores, marine invertebratelarvae, and other organic material adhere to surfaces submerged in marine environments (e.g., fish nets in aquaculture). Bacteria then encourage the attachment of secondary unwanted colonizers.[2][15]
Biofouling has strong negative impacts on aquaculture operations. Water flow and dissolved oxygen are inhibited due to clogged nets in fish pens.[16][17] The result is often diseased fish from infections, such as netpen liver disease,[18]amoebic gill disease,[19] and parasites.[20][21] Other negative impacts include increased fish mortalities, decreased fish growth rates, premature fish harvesting, reduced fish product values and profitability, and an adversely impacted environment near fish farms.[2][22][23]
Biofouling adds enormous weight to submerged fish netting. Two hundredfold increases in weight have been reported.[24][25] This translates, for example, to two thousand pounds of unwanted organisms adhered to what was once a clean 10-pound fish pen net. In South Australia, biofouling weighing 6.5 tonnes (approximately 13,000 pounds) was observed on a fish pen net.[26] This extra burden often results in net breakage and additional maintenance costs.
To combat parasites from biofouling in finfish aquaculture, treatment protocols such as cypermethrin, azamethiphos, and emamectin benzoate may be administered, but these have been found to have detrimental environmental effects, for example, in lobster operations.[27][28][29][30][31]
To treat diseases in fish raised in biofouled nets, fish stocks are administered antibiotics. The antibiotics can have unwanted long-term health effects on consumers and on coastal environments near aquaculture operations.[32] To combat biofouling, operators often implement costly maintenance measures, such as frequent net changing, cleaning/removal of unwanted organisms from nets, net repairs, and chemical treatment including antimicrobial coatings on nylon nets.[19][33][34][25] The cost of antifouling a single salmon net can be several thousand British pounds.[2] In some sectors of the European aquaculture industry, cleaning biofouled fish and shellfish pens can cost 5–20% of its market value. Heavy fouling can reduce the saleable product in nets by 60–90%.[22]
Antifouling coatings are often used on nylon nets because the process is more economical than manual cleaning.[35] When nylon nets are coated with antifouling compounds, the coatings repel biofouling for a period of time, usually between several weeks to several months. However, the nets eventually succumb to biofouling. Antifouling coatings containing cuprous oxidealgaecide/biocide are the coatings technology used almost exclusively in the fish farming industry today. The treatments usually flake off within a few weeks to six to eight months.[2][36]
Biofouled nets are replaced after several months of service, depending on environmental conditions, in a complicated, costly, and labor-intensive operation that involves divers and specialized personnel. During this process, live fish in nets must be transferred to clean pens, which causes undue stress and asphyxiation that results in some loss of fish.[37] Biofouled nets that can be reused are washed on land via manual brushing and scrubbing or high-pressure water hosing. They are then dried and re-impregnated with antifouling coatings.[25][36][38][39]
A line of net cleaners is available for in-situ washings where permitted.[40] But, even where not permitted by environmental, fisheries, maritime, and sanitary authorities, should the lack of dissolved oxygen in submerged pens create an emergency condition that endangers the health of fish, divers may be deployed with special in situ cleaning machinery to scrub biofouled nets.[36]
The aquaculture industry is addressing the negative environmental impacts from its operations (see aquaculture issues). As the industry evolves, a cleaner, more sustainable aquaculture industry is expected to emerge, one that may increasingly rely on materials with anti-fouling, anti-corrosive, and strong structural properties, such as copper alloys.
Antifouling properties of copper alloys
There is no biofouling on a copper alloy mesh after 4 months immersed in the waters of the North Atlantic (foreground), whereas hydroids have grown on high-density polyethylene tubing (background).
In the aquaculture industry, sound animal husbandry translates to keeping fish clean, well fed, healthy, and not overcrowded.[41] One solution to keeping farmed fish healthy is to contain them in antifouling copper alloy nets and structures.[42]
Researchers have attributed copper's resistance to biofouling, even in temperate waters, to two possible mechanisms: 1) a retarding sequence of colonization through release of antimicrobial copper ions, thereby preventing the attachment of microbial layers to marine surfaces;[43] and, 2) separating layers that contain corrosive products and the spores of juveniles or macro-encrusting organisms.[44]
The most important requirement for optimum biofouling resistance is that the copper alloys should be freely exposed or electrically insulated from less noble alloys and from cathodic protection. Galvanic coupling to less noble alloys and cathodic protection prevent copper ion releases from surface films and therefore reduce biofouling resistance.[45]
As temperatures increase and water velocities decrease in marine waters, biofouling rates dramatically rise. However, copper's resistance to biofouling is observed even in temperate waters. Studies in La Herradura Bay, Coquimbo, Chile, where biofouling conditions are extreme, demonstrated that a copper alloy (90% copper, 10% nickel) avoided macro-encrusting organisms.[44]
Corrosion behavior of copper alloys
Copper alloys used in sea water service have low general corrosion rates but also have a high resistance to many localized forms of corrosion. A technical discussion regarding various types of corrosion, application considerations (e.g., depth of installations, effect of polluted waters, sea conditions), and the corrosion characteristics of several copper alloys used in aquaculture netting is available (i.e., copper-nickel, copper-zinc, and copper-silicon[46]).
Early examples of copper sheathing
Prior to the late 1700s, hulls were made almost entirely of wood, often white oak. Sacrificial planking was the common mode of hull protection. This technique included wrapping a protective 1/2-inch thick layer of wood, often pine, on the hull to decrease the risk of damage. This layer was replaced regularly when infested with marine borers.[47]Copper sheathing for bio-resistant ship hulls was developed in the late 18th century. In 1761, the hull of the British Royal Navy's HMS Alarm frigate was fully sheathed in copper to prevent attack by Teredo worms in tropical waters.[48] The copper reduced biofouling of the hull, which enabled ships to move faster than those that did not have copper sheathed hulls.
Environmental performance of copper alloy mesh
Many complicated factors influence the environmental performance of copper alloys in aquaculture operations. A technical description of antibiofouling mechanisms, fish health and welfare, fish losses due to escapes and predator attacks, and reduced life cycleenvironmental impacts is summarized in this reference.[49]
Types of copper alloys
Section of a fish net on a salmon farm near Puerto Montt, Chile. The copper alloy woven mesh inside the frame has resisted biofouling whereas PVC (i.e., the frame around the mesh) is heavily fouled.
Copper–zinc brass alloys are currently (2011) being deployed in commercial-scale aquaculture operations in Asia, South America and the US (Hawaii). Extensive research, including demonstrations and trials, are currently being implemented on two other copper alloys: copper-nickel and copper-silicon. Each of these alloy types has an inherent ability to reduce biofouling, pen waste, disease, and the need for antibiotics while simultaneously maintaining water circulation and oxygen requirements. Other types of copper alloys are also being considered for research and development in aquaculture operations.
The University of New Hampshire is in the midst of conducting experiments under the auspices of the International Copper Association (ICA)[50] to evaluate the structural, hydrodynamic, and antifouling response of copper alloy nets. Factors to be determined from these experiments, such as drag, pen dynamic loads, material loss, and biological growth – well documented for nylon netting but not fully understood for copper-nickel alloy nets – will help to design fish pen enclosures made from these alloys. The East China Sea Fisheries Research Institute, in Shanghai, China, is also conducting experimental investigations on copper alloys for ICA.
Copper–zinc alloys
The Mitsubishi-Shindoh Co., Ltd., has developed a proprietary copper-zinc brass alloy, called UR30,[51] specifically designed for aquaculture operations. The alloy, which is composed of 64% copper, 35.1% zinc, 0.6% tin, and 0.3% nickel, resists mechanical abrasion when formed into wires and fabricated into chain link, woven, or other types of flexible mesh. Corrosion rates depend on the depth of submersion and seawater conditions. The average reported corrosion rate reported for the alloy is < 5 μm/yr based on two- and five-year exposure trials in seawater.[52]
The Ashimori Industry Company, Ltd., has installed approximately 300 flexible pens with woven chain link UR30 meshes in Japan to raise Seriola (i.e., yellowtail, amberjack, kingfish, hamachi). The company has installed another 32 brass pens to raise Atlantic salmon at the Van Diemen Aquaculture operations in Tasmania, Australia. In Chile, EcoSea Farming S.A. has installed a total of 62 woven chain link brass mesh pens to raise trout and Atlantic salmon.[52] In Panama, China, Korea, Turkey, and the US, demonstrations and trials are underway using flexible pens with woven chain link UR30 and other mesh forms and a range of copper alloys.
Copper–nickel alloys were developed specifically for seawater applications over five decades ago. Today, these alloys are being investigated for their potential use in aquaculture.
Copper–nickel alloys for marine applications are usually 90% copper, 10% nickel, and small amounts of manganese and iron to enhance corrosion resistance. The seawater corrosion resistance of copper–nickel alloys results in a thin, adherent, protective surface film which forms naturally and quickly on the metal upon exposure to clean seawater.[53]
The rate of corrosion protective formation is temperature dependent. For example, at 27°C (i.e., a common inlet temperature in the Middle East), rapid film formation and good corrosion protection can be expected within a few hours. At 16°C, it could take 2–3 months for the protection to mature. But once a good surface film forms, corrosion rates decrease, normally to 0.02–0.002mm/yr, as protective layers develop over a period of years.[54] These alloys have good resistance to chloride pitting and crevice corrosion and are not susceptible to chloride stress corrosion.
Copper–silicon alloys
Copper–silicon has a long history of use as screws, nuts, bolts, washers, pins, lag bolts, and staples in wooden sailing vessels in marine environments. The alloys are often composed of copper, silicon, and manganese. The inclusion of silicon strengthens the metal.
As with the copper–nickel alloys, corrosion resistance of copper–silicon is due to protective films that form on the surface over a period of time. General corrosion rates of 0.025–0.050mm have been observed in quiet waters. This rate decreases towards the lower end of the range over long-term exposures (e.g., 400–600 days). There is generally no pitting with the silicon-bronzes. Also there is good resistance to erosion corrosion up to moderate flow rates. Because copper–silicon is weldable, rigid pens can be constructed with this material. Also, because welded copper–silicon mesh is lighter than copper-zinc chain link, aquaculture enclosures made with copper–silicon may be lighter in weight and therefore a potentially less expensive alternative.
Luvata Appleton, LLC, is researching and developing a line of copper alloy woven and welded meshes, including a patent-pending copper silicon alloy, that are marketed under the trade name Seawire.[55] Copper-silicon alloy meshes have been developed by the firm to raise various marine organisms in test trials that are now in various stages of evaluation. These include raising cobia in Panama, lobsters in the US state of Maine, and crabs in the Chesapeake Bay. The company is working with various universities to study its material, including the University of Arizona to study shrimp, the University of New Hampshire to study cod, and Oregon State University to study oysters.
Aquaculture, also known as aquafarming, is the controlled cultivation ("farming") of aquatic organisms such as fish, crustaceans, mollusks, algae and other organisms of value such as aquatic plants. Aquaculture involves cultivating freshwater, brackish water and saltwater populations under controlled or semi-natural conditions, and can be contrasted with commercial fishing, which is the harvesting of wild fish. Aquaculture is also a practice used for restoring and rehabilitating marine and freshwater ecosystems. Mariculture, commonly known as marine farming, is aquaculture in seawater habitats and lagoons, as opposed to freshwater aquaculture. Pisciculture is a type of aquaculture that consists of fish farming to obtain fish products as food.
Mariculture, sometimes called marine farming or marine aquaculture, is a specialized branch of aquaculture involving the cultivation of marine organisms for food and other animal products, in enclosed sections of the open ocean, fish farms built on littoral waters, or in artificial tanks, ponds or raceways which are filled with seawater. An example of the latter is the farming of marine fish, including finfish and shellfish like prawns, or oysters and seaweed in saltwater ponds. Non-food products produced by mariculture include: fish meal, nutrient agar, jewellery, and cosmetics.
Fish farming or pisciculture involves commercial breeding of fish, most often for food, in fish tanks or artificial enclosures such as fish ponds. It is a particular type of aquaculture, which is the controlled cultivation and harvesting of aquatic animals such as fish, crustaceans, molluscs and so on, in natural or pseudo-natural environments. A facility that releases juvenile fish into the wild for recreational fishing or to supplement a species' natural numbers is generally referred to as a fish hatchery. Worldwide, the most important fish species produced in fish farming are carp, catfish, salmon and tilapia.
Cupronickel or copper–nickel (CuNi) is an alloy of copper with nickel, usually along with small quantities of other elements added for strength, such as iron and manganese. The copper content typically varies from 60 to 90 percent.
Selective breeding is the process by which humans use animal breeding and plant breeding to selectively develop particular phenotypic traits (characteristics) by choosing which typically animal or plant males and females will sexually reproduce and have offspring together. Domesticated animals are known as breeds, normally bred by a professional breeder, while domesticated plants are known as varieties, cultigens, cultivars, or breeds. Two purebred animals of different breeds produce a crossbreed, and crossbred plants are called hybrids. Flowers, vegetables and fruit-trees may be bred by amateurs and commercial or non-commercial professionals: major crops are usually the provenance of the professionals.
Monel is a group of alloys of nickel and copper, with small amounts of iron, manganese, carbon, and silicon. Monel is not a cupronickel alloy because it has less than 60% copper.
Anti-fouling paint is a specialized category of coatings applied as the outer (outboard) layer to the hull of a ship or boat, to slow the growth of and facilitate detachment of subaquatic organisms that attach to the hull and can affect a vessel's performance and durability. It falls into a category of commercially available underwater hull paints, also known as bottom paints.
Biofouling or biological fouling is the accumulation of microorganisms, plants, algae, or small animals where it is not wanted on surfaces such as ship and submarine hulls, devices such as water inlets, pipework, grates, ponds, and rivers that cause degradation to the primary purpose of that item. Such accumulation is referred to as epibiosis when the host surface is another organism and the relationship is not parasitic. Since biofouling can occur almost anywhere water is present, biofouling poses risks to a wide variety of objects such as boat hulls and equipment, medical devices and membranes, as well as to entire industries, such as paper manufacturing, food processing, underwater construction, and desalination plants.
Aluminium bronze is a type of bronze in which aluminium is the main alloying metal added to copper, in contrast to standard bronze or brass. A variety of aluminium bronzes of differing compositions have found industrial use, with most ranging from 5% to 11% aluminium by weight, the remaining mass being copper; other alloying agents such as iron, nickel, manganese, and silicon are also sometimes added to aluminium bronzes.
The aquaculture of salmonids is the farming and harvesting of salmonid fish under controlled conditions for both commercial and recreational purposes. Salmonids, along with carp and tilapia, are the three most important fish groups in aquaculture. The most commonly commercially farmed salmonid is the Atlantic salmon.
Aquaculture is a major economic activity in Chile. Among the diverse aquacultures practised in Chile, Atlantic salmon aquaculture is by far the largest sector. Apart from salmon and trout, Chilean aquaculture also produces turbots and molluscs, in particular Mytilus platensis, Northern scallops, Pacific oysters, Aulacomya ater, red abalone, and Chilean oysters. In terms of algae Gracillaria chilensis is cultivated and harvested.
An antimicrobial surface is coated by an antimicrobial agent that inhibits the ability of microorganisms to grow on the surface of a material. Such surfaces are becoming more widely investigated for possible use in various settings including clinics, industry, and even the home. The most common and most important use of antimicrobial coatings has been in the healthcare setting for sterilization of medical devices to prevent hospital associated infections, which have accounted for almost 100,000 deaths in the United States. In addition to medical devices, linens and clothing can provide a suitable environment for many bacteria, fungi, and viruses to grow when in contact with the human body which allows for the transmission of infectious disease.
Aquaculture is the farming of fish, shellfish or aquatic plants in either fresh or saltwater, or both. The farmed animals or plants are cared for under a controlled environment to ensure optimum growth, success and profit. When they have reached an appropriate size, they are harvested, processed, and shipped to markets to be sold. Aquaculture is practiced all over the world and is extremely popular in countries such as China, where population is high and fish is a staple part of their everyday diet.
Sea sponge aquaculture is the process of farming sea sponges under controlled conditions. It has been conducted in the world's oceans for centuries using a number of aquaculture techniques. There are many factors such as light, salinity, pH, dissolved oxygen and the accumulation of waste products that influence the growth rate of sponges. The benefits of sea sponge aquaculture are realised as a result of its ease of establishment, minimum infrastructure requirements and the potential to be used as a source of income for populations living in developing countries. Sea sponges are produced on a commercial scale to be used as bath sponges or to extract biologically active compounds which are found in certain sponge species. Techniques such as the rope and mesh bag method are used to culture sponges independently or within an integrated multi-trophic aquaculture system setting. One of the only true sustainable sea sponges cultivated in the world occur in the region of Micronesia, with a number of growing and production methods used to ensure and maintain the continued sustainability of these farmed species.
Heat exchangers are devices that transfer heat to achieve desired heating or cooling. An important design aspect of heat exchanger technology is the selection of appropriate materials to conduct and transfer heat fast and efficiently.
Antimicrobials destroy bacteria, viruses, fungi, algae, and other microbes. The cells of bacteria (prokaryotes), such as salmonella, differ from those of higher-level organisms (eukaryotes), such as fish. Antibiotics are chemicals designed to either kill or inhibit the growth of pathogenic bacteria while exploiting the differences between prokaryotes and eukaryotes in order to make them relatively harmless in higher-level organisms. Antibiotics are constructed to act in one of three ways: by disrupting cell membranes of bacteria, by impeding DNA or protein synthesis, or by hampering the activity of certain enzymes unique to bacteria.
Ultra-low fouling is a rating of a surface's ability to shed potential contamination. Surfaces are prone to contamination, which is a phenomenon known as fouling. Unwanted adsorbates caused by fouling change the properties of a surface, which is often counter-productive to the function of that surface. Consequently, a necessity for anti-fouling surfaces has arisen in many fields: blocked pipes inhibit factory productivity, biofouling increases fuel consumption on ships, medical devices must be kept sanitary, etc. Although chemical fouling inhibitors, metallic coatings, and cleaning processes can be used to reduce fouling, non-toxic surfaces with anti-fouling properties are ideal for fouling prevention. To be considered effective, an ultra-low fouling surface must be able to repel and withstand the accumulation of detrimental aggregates down to less than 5 ng/cm2. A recent surge of research has been conducted to create these surfaces in order to benefit the biological, nautical, mechanical, and medical fields.
Loch Duart is a small, independent Scottish salmon farming company. It is headquartered in Scourie, Sutherland in north-west Scotland and has just over 100 employees. The company owns and operates eight sea sites and two hatcheries in Sutherland and the Outer Hebrides. Sales, marketing and finance departments are located in Montrose and a French sales and marketing office in Lorient, Brittany.
Biofloc technology (BFT) is a system of aquaculture that uses "microbial biotechnology to increase the efficacy and utlization of fish feeds, where toxic materials, such as nitrogen components, are treated and converted to a useful product, like proteins, for use as supplementary feeds for the fish and crustaceans." The species of fish and crustaceans must be carefully chosen in order for the BFT system to realize its full potential.
References
↑ Offshore Aquaculture in the United States: Economic considerations, implications, and opportunities, U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration, July 2008, p. 53
↑ Southern Regional Aquaculture Center at "Archived copy"(PDF). Archived from the original(PDF) on 19 November 2010. Retrieved 15 August 2011.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
↑ Marine Fouling and its Prevention, Wood Hole Oceanographic Institution, 1952, United States Naval Institute, Annapolis, Maryland, USA
↑ Ahlgren, M.O., (1998), Consumption and assimilation of salmon net pen fouling debris by the red sea cucumber Parastichopus califormicus: Implications for poly-culture, Journal of the World Aquaculture Society, Vol. 29, pp. 133–139
↑ Andersen, RJ; Luu, HA; Chen, DZ; Holmes, CF; Kent, ML; Le Blanc, M; Taylor, FJ; Williams, DE (1993). "Chemical and biological evidence links microcystins to salmon 'netpen liver disease'". Toxicon. 31 (10): 1315–23. doi:10.1016/0041-0101(93)90404-7. PMID8303725.
↑ Milne, P.H., (1970), Fish Farming: A guide to the design and construction of net enclosures, Marine Research, Vol. 1, pp. 1–31 ISBN0-11-490463-4
1 2 3 Beveridge, M. (2004), Cage Aquaculture. The University Press, Cambridge ISBN1-4051-0842-8
↑ Cronin, E. R.; Cheshire, A. C.; Clarke, S. M.; Melville, A. J. (1999). "An investigation into the composition, biomass and oxygen budget of the fouling community on a tuna aquaculture farm". Biofouling. 13 (4): 279. Bibcode:1999Biofo..13..279C. doi:10.1080/08927019909378386.
↑ Burridge, L; Haya, K; Zitko, V; Waddy, S (1999). "The Lethality of Salmosan (Azamethiphos) to American Lobster (Homarus americanus) Larvae, Postlarvae, and Adults". Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety. 43 (2): 165–9. Bibcode:1999EcoES..43..165B. doi:10.1006/eesa.1999.1771. PMID10375419.
↑ Burridge, L (2000). "The lethality of the cypermethrin formulation Excis to larval and post-larval stages of the American lobster (Homarus americanus)". Aquaculture. 182 (1–2): 37. Bibcode:2000Aquac.182...37B. doi:10.1016/S0044-8486(99)00252-5.
↑ Burridge, L (2000). "The lethality of anti-sea lice formulations Salmosan (Azamethiphos) and Excis (Cypermethrin) to stage IV and adult lobsters (Homarus americanus) during repeated short-term exposures". Aquaculture. 182 (1–2): 27. doi:10.1016/S0044-8486(99)00251-3.
↑ Ernst, W; Jackman, P; Doe, K; Page, F; Julien, G; MacKay, K; Sutherland, T (2001). "Dispersion and Toxicity to Non-target Aquatic Organisms of Pesticides Used to Treat Sea Lice on Salmon in Net Pen Enclosures". Marine Pollution Bulletin. 42 (6): 433–44. Bibcode:2001MarPB..42..432E. doi:10.1016/S0025-326X(00)00177-6. PMID11468921.
↑ Li, S. (1994), Fish culture in cages and pens: Freshwater Fish Culture in China: Principles and Practice, pp. 305–346, Elsevier, Amsterdam ISBN0-444-88882-9
1 2 3 Alberto, Jose and Disselkoen, Ochoa (2009), Floating device to clean nets, Patent application 12/455,150, Publication US 2010/0006036 A1, Filing date 27 May; and National Chilean Patent Application No. 1565-2008 filed on 29 May 2008
↑ Paclibare et al., (1994), Clearing of the kidney-disease bacterium Renibacterium salmoninarum from seawater by the blue mussel Mytilus edulis, and the status of the mussel as a reservoir of the bacterium, Diseases of Aquatic Organisms, Vol. 18, pp. 129–133
↑ Enright, C., (1993), Control of fouling in bivalve aquaculture, World Aquaculture, Vol. 24, pp. 44–46
↑ Lee et al., (1985), Observations on the use of antifouling paint in netcage fish farming in Singapore, Singapore Journal of Primary Industries, Vol. 13, pp. 1–12
↑ Offshore Aquaculture in the United States: Economic Considerations, Implications, & Opportunities, U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration, July 2008
↑ Sutherland, I.W., 1983, Microbial exopolysaccarides: Their role in microbial adhesion in aqueous systems, Critical Reviews in Microbiology, Vol. 10, pp.173–201
1 2 Edding, Mario E., Flores, Hector, and Miranda, Claudio, (1995), Experimental Usage of Copper-Nickel Alloy Mesh in Mariculture. Part 1: Feasibility of usage in a temperate zone; Part 2: Demonstration of usage in a cold zone; Final report to the International Copper Association Ltd.
↑ http://www.luvata.com; Seawire is a trademark of Luvata Appleton, LLC. The company intends to market a wide range of alloys in addition to copper-silicon under this trademark
Other references
Design Guide: Copper Alloy Mesh in Marine Aquaculture, 1984, International Copper Research Association (INCRA) 704/5.
Metal Corrosion in Boats, Nigel Warren and Adlard Coles, Nautical, 1998.
Galvanic Corrosion: A Practical Guide for Engineers, R. Francis, 2001, NACE Press.
Marine Corrosion Causes and Prevention, F. LaQue, John Wiley and Sons, 1975.
The Selection of Materials for Seawater cooling Systems: A Practical Guide for Engineers, R. Francis, 2006, NACE Press.
Guidelines for the Use of Copper Alloys in Seawater, A. Tuthill. 1987. CDA/ Nickel Institute Publication.
The Brasses: Properties and Applications, CDA UK Publication 117.
Copper in the Ocean Environment, Neal Blossom, American Chemet Corporation.
ICA Project 438: Experimental usage of copper nickel alloy mesh in aquaculture, Mario E. Edding, Hector Flores, Claudio Miranda, Universidad Catholica del Norte, July 1995
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