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Persian, also known by its endonym Farsi, is one of the Western Iranian languages within the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European language family. It is primarily spoken in Iran, Afghanistan, and Tajikistan, Uzbekistan and some other regions which historically were Persianate societies and considered part of Greater Iran. It is written right to left in the Persian alphabet, a modified variant of the Arabic script.
Shah is a title given to the emperors, kings, princes and lords of Iran. It was also adopted by the kings of Shirvan namely the Shirvanshahs. It was also used by Persianate societies such as the rulers and offspring of the Ottoman Empire, Mughal emperors of the Indian Subcontinent, the Bengal Sultanate, as well as in Afghanistan. In Iran the title was continuously used; rather than King in the European sense, each Persian ruler regarded himself as the Shahanshah or Padishah of the Persian Empire.
The Sasanian Empire, also known as the Sassanian, Sasanid, Sassanid or Neo-Persian Empire, was the last kingdom of the Persian Empire before the rise of Islam. Named after the House of Sasan, it ruled from 224 to 651 AD. The Sasanian Empire succeeded the Parthian Empire and was recognised as one of the leading world powers alongside its neighbouring arch-rival the Roman-Byzantine Empire for a period of more than 400 years.
At the accession of Kavadh, the authority and status of the Sasanian kings had reached rock-bottom; when Kavadh died 43 years later, his son Khosrow I inherited a sturdy and mighty empire that equaled that of the Byzantines. Many vital reforms were introduced by Kavadh, which were completely implemented by Khosrow I. Due to the many challenges and issues that Kavadh successfully thwarted, he is considered one of the most effective and successful kings to rule the Sasanian Empire, in the words of Schindel, "a genius in his own right, even if of a somewhat Machiavellian type."[1]
Khosrow I ; also known as Anushiruwan the Just, was the King of Kings (Shahanshah) of the Sasanian Empire from 531 to 579. He was the successor of his father Kavadh I (488–531). Khosrow I was the twenty-second Sasanian Emperor of Persia, and one of its most celebrated emperors.
Machiavellianism is defined as the political theory of Niccolò Machiavelli, especially the view that any means can be used if it is necessary to maintain political power. The word comes from the Italian Renaissance diplomat and writer Niccolò Machiavelli, born in 1469, who wrote Il Principe, among other works.
Name
Due to increased Sasanian interest in Kayanian history, Kavadh was named after the mythological Kayanian king Kavi Kavata.[2]
The Kayanians are a semi-mythological dynasty of Persian tradition and folklore which supposedly ruled after the Pishdadids, and before the historical Achaemenids. Considered collectively, the Kayanian kings are the heroes of the Avesta, the sacred texts of Zoroastrianism, and of the Shahnameh, Iran's national epic.
Kai Kobad is a mythological figure of Iranian folklore and oral tradition. The 'Kai' stock epithet identifies Kobad as a Kayanian, a mythological dynasty that in tradition Kai Kobad was also the founder of.
Early life and accession
The son of the Sasanian shah Peroz I (r.459–484), Kavadh was born in 473.[1] In 484, Peroz was defeated and killed by a Hephthalite army at the battle of Herat. The Iranian magnates—most notably Sukhra and Shapur Mihran—elected Peroz's brother, Balash, as the new shah. He did, however, prove unpopular among the nobility and clergy, who had him deposed after just four years–in 488.[3] Sukhra, a member of the House of Karen, one of the Seven Great Houses of Iran, played a main role in Balash's deposal,[3] and appointed Kavadh as the new shah of Iran.[4]
Peroz I was the eighteenth king (shah) of the Sasanian Empire from 459 to 484. He was the son of Yazdegerd II. Peroz seized the throne from his older brother Hormizd III, whose reign lasted just two years. During his reign, he successfully quelled a rebellion in Caucasian Albania in the west, and put an end to the Kidarites in the east. He was, however, less successful in handling the Hephthalites, who had taken the Kidarites' place. This eventually resulted in a disastrous defeat at the battle of Herat, where Peroz was killed. The magnates—most notably Sukhra and Shapur Mihran—elected Peroz's brother, Balash, as the new shah.
The Battle of Herat was a large scale military confrontation that took place in 484 between an invading force of the Sassanid Empire composed of around 100,000 men under the command of Peroz I and a smaller army of the Hephthalite Empire under the command of Khushnavaz. The battle was a catastrophic defeat for the Sassanid forces who were almost completely wiped out. Peroz, the Sassanid king, was killed in the action.
Sukhra was an Iranian nobleman from the House of Karen, who was the de facto ruler of the Sasanian Empire from 484 to 493. He was active during the reign of shah Peroz I, Balash and Kavadh I. He is often confused with his father Zarmihr Hazarwuxt and son Zarmihr Karen.
Kavadh ascended the throne at age of 15; his young age is emphasized on his coins, which shows him with short whiskers.[1] He inherited an empire that reached had its lowest; the nobility and clergy held much influence and authority over the nation, and were able to act as king-makers, as seen by their choice to depose Balash.[5] Economic wise, the empire was not doing well either, due to drought, famine, and the crushing defeats suffered by the Hephthalites, whom the Sasanians had forced to pay vast amounts of tribute to.[6] The young and inexperienced Kavadh was tutored by Sukhra during his first five years as shah. During this period, Kavadh was a mere figurehead, whilst Sukhra was the de facto ruler of the empire. This is emphasized by al-Tabari; "The people came to Sukhra and undertook all their dealings with him, treating Kavadh as a person of no importance and regarding his commands with contempt."[4] Sukhra bragged about having put Kavadh on the throne, and numerous regions and the representatives of the elite paid tribute not to Kavadh, but Sukhra.[7] Sukhra also controlled the royal treasury and the Iranian military.[7] In 493, Kavadh, now having reached adulthood, wanted to get rid of Sukhra's dominance, and as a result had him exiled to his native Shiraz in southwestern Iran.[1][7] Even in exile, however, Sukhra was in control of everything except the kingly crown.[7]
In politics, a figurehead is a person who de jure holds an important and often supremely powerful title or office, yet de facto exercises little to no actual power. This usually means that they are head of state, but not head of government. The metaphor derives from the carved figurehead at the prow of a sailing ship.
In law and government, de facto describes practices that exist in reality, even if not officially recognized by laws. It is commonly used to refer to what happens in practice, in contrast with de jure, which refers to things that happen according to law. Unofficial customs that are widely accepted are sometimes called de facto standards.
AbūJaʿfar Muḥammad ibn Jarīr al-Ṭabarī was an influential Persian scholar, historian and exegete of the Qur'an from Amol, Tabaristan, who composed all his works in Arabic. Today, he is best known for his expertise in Qur'anic exegesis, Islamic jurisprudence and world history, but he has been described as "an impressively prolific polymath. He wrote on such subjects as poetry, lexicography, grammar, ethics, mathematics, and medicine."
Alarmed by the thought that Sukhra might rebel, Kavadh wanted to completely get rid of him. However, he lacked manpower to do so, as the army was controlled by Sukhra, and the Sasanians mainly relied on the military of the Seven Great Houses of Iran.[8] He found his solution in Shapur of Ray, a powerful nobleman from the House of Mihran, and a resolute opponent of Sukhra.[9] Shapur, at head of an army of his own men and that of disgruntled nobles, marched to Shiraz, defeated Sukhra's forces, and took the latter to the Sasanian capital of Ctesiphon.[8] However, even in imprisonment in Ctesiphon, Sukhra was considered too powerful, and was thus executed.[8] Sukhra's execution caused displeasure among some prominent members of the nobility, which weakened Kavadh's status as shah.[10] His death marked the temporarily loss of authority of the House of Karen, whose members were exiled in the regions of Tabaristan and Zabulistan, which was away from the Sasanian court in Ctesiphon.[11][lower-alpha 1]
Shapur of Ray, was an Iranian military officer from the Mihran family, who briefly served as the governor (marzban) of Persian Armenia from 483 to 484.
The House of Mihrān or House of Mehrān, was a leading Iranian noble family (šahrdārān), one of the Seven Great Houses of the Sassanid Persian Empire which claimed descent from the earlier Arsacid dynasty. A branch of the family formed the Mihranid line of the kings of Caucasian Albania and the Chosroid Dynasty of Kartli.
Ctesiphon was an ancient city, located on the eastern bank of the Tigris, and about 35 kilometres (22 mi) southeast of present-day Baghdad. Ctesiphon served as a royal capital of the Persian Empire in the Parthian and Sasanian eras for over eight hundred years. Ctesiphon remained the capital of the Sasanian Empire until the Muslim conquest of Persia in 651 AD.
The Mazdakite movement and deposal
Not long after, a Zoroastrian priest named Mazdak caught the attention of Kavadh. Mazdak was the chief representative of a religious and philosophical teaching called Mazdakism, which was against violence, and called for the sharing of wealth, women and property,[6] a archaic form of communism.[10] Mazdakism not consisted of theological and cosmological aspects, but also political and social impacts, which was to the disadvantage of the nobility and clergy. Kavadh thus used the faith as a political tool in order to curb the power of the nobility and clergy.[10][6] Royal granaries and land was shared among the lower-classes.[12] Kavadh was as a result deposed by the nobility, who installed his brother Jamasp on the throne.[13] One of the other reasons behind Kavadh's deposal was his execution of Sukhra.[1]
A council shortly took place among the nobility on what to do with Kavadh. Gushnaspdad, a member of a prominent family of landowners (the Kanarangiyan) proposed to have Kavadh executed. His proposal was, however, overruled and Kavadh was instead imprisoned in the "Prison of Oblivion" in Khuzestan.[1][13] With the aid of his sister and the Iranian officer Siyawush, Kavadh managed to free himself from imprisonment, and went to the court of the Hephthalite king, where he took refuge.[14][1][13] There Kavadh gained the support of the Hephthalite king, and also married the latters daughter (who was Kavadh's own niece).[1] In 498, Kavadh returned to Iran with a Hephthalite army. When Kavadh crossed the domains of the Kanarangiyan family in Khorasan, he was met by a member of the family, Adergoudounbades, who agreed to lend his aid.[15] Another noble who supported Kavadh was Zarmihr Karen, a son of Sukhra.[1]
Jamasp, including the nobility and clergy did not put any resistance as they wanted to prevent another civil war.[16] They made an agreement with Kavadh that he would be shah again with the understanding that he would not hurt Jamasp nor the elite.[16] Jamasp was spared, however Gushnaspdad and other nobles who had plotted against Kavadh were executed. Generally, however, Kavadh secured his position by lenience.[10] Adergoudounbades was appointed as the new head of the Kanarangiyan,[17] while Siyawush was appointed as the head of the Sasanian army (arteshtaran-salar).[14] Kavadh's reclaim of his throne displays the troubled circumstances of the empire, where in a time of anarchy a small force was able to overwhelm the nobility-clergy alliance.[13]
Second reign
Kavadh, now reigning as the shah of Iran for the second time, appointed another son of Sukhra, Bozorgmehr, as his minister (wuzurg framadār).[16]
Reforms
Prior to Kavadh's reign, a majority of the land was owned by Seven Great Houses of Iran: Suren, Waraz, Karen, Ispahbudhan, Spandiyadh, Mihran, and Zik.[18] These great landowners enjoyed tax exemptions from the Sasanian empire, and were tax collectors within their local provincial areas.[19] During the last years of Kavadh's reign, he started implementing a new tax reform, which the nobility was unable to oppose due to being weakened by the Mazdakism movement.[20]
Many places were founded and re-built under Kavadh. He founded Eran-asan-kar-Kawad in Media;[1]Fahraj in Spahan;[21] Weh-Kawad, Eran-win(n)ard-Kawad, Kawad-xwarrah, and Arrajan in Pars.[1][22] He rebuilt Kirmanshah in Media, which he also used as one of his residences.[23] He founded a township in Meybod, which was named Haft-adhar ("seven fires"), due to a Zoroastrian fire temple being established there, whose original fire was supported by fires brought from seven other temples in Pars, Balkh, Adurbadagan, Nisa, Spahan, Ghazni, and Ctesiphon.[24] In the Caucasus, Kavadh had new fortifications made at Derbent,[25] and ordered the construction of the Apzut Kawat wall (Middle Persian: *Abzūd Kawād, "Kavadh increased [in glory]" or "has prospered").[26] The prominent fortress of P'artaw, which had been rebuilt during the reign of Peroz I and named Perozabad ("the city of Peroz"), was fortified by Kavadh under the name of Perozkavad ("victorious Kavadh").[27]
Relations with his Christian subjects
Kavadh's relation with his Christian subjects are unclear. In Christian Iberia, where the Sasanians had earlier tried to spread Zoroastrianism, Kavadh represented himself as an advocate of orthodox Zoroastrianism. In Armenia, however, Kavadh settled the disputes with the Christians and appears to have continued the pacific approach of Balash.[1] The Christians of Mesopotamia and Iran proper practised their religion without any persecution, despite the punishment of Christians in Iran proper being briefly mentioned in c.512/3.[1] Like Jamasp, Kavadh also supported the Patriarchs of the Church of the East, Babai, with Christians serving in high offices at the Sasanian court.[1]
Map of the Byzantine-Iranian frontier during the reign of Kavadh I.
The Sasanians and Byzantines had kept peace since the brief Byzantine–Sasanian War of 440. The last major war between the two empires had been during the reign of Shapur II (r.309–379).[28] However, war finally erupted in 502. Kavadh needed money to pay his debts to the Hephthalites who had helped him regain his throne, and he applied for subsidies to the Byzantine Empire, which had before supported the Sasanians. But now the Emperor Anastasius I (r.491–518) refused subsidies, which made Kavadh try to gain the money by force.[29] According to another source, the Iranians had been displeased with the Byzantines reluctance to aid them in the defense of the Caucasus against the Huns.[13] Regardless, in 502, Kavadh captured Theodosiopolis, perhaps with local support; the city was in any case undefended by troops and weakly fortified.[29]
He then besieged the fortress-city of Amida through the autumn and winter (502–503). The siege of the city proved to be a far more difficult enterprise than Kavadh expected; the defenders, although unsupported by troops, repelled the Iranian assaults for three months before they were finally beaten.[30] The Byzantines attempted to recapture the city, but they were unsuccessful. Kavadh then tried to capture Edessa in Osroene, but was unsuccessful.[31] In 505 an invasion of Armenia by the Huns from the Caucasus led to an armistice, during which the Byzantines paid subsidies to the Iranians for the maintenance of the fortifications on the Caucasus,[32] and in return for Amida, which was captured by Kavadh. The peace treaty was signed by the Ispahbudhan aristocrat Bawi, the brother-in-law of Kavadh.[33] Although Kavadh's first war with the Byzantines did not end with a decisive winner, the conquest of Amida was the most prominent accomplishment achieved by a Sasanian army since 359, when the same city had been captured by Shapur II.[1]
Wars in the east
Not much is known about Kavadh's wars in the east; according to Procopius, Kavadh was forced to leave for the eastern frontier in 503 to deal with an attack by "hostile Huns", one of the many clashes in a reportedly lengthy war. After the Sasanian disaster at the battle of Herat in 484, all of Khorasan was seized by the Hephthalites; no Sasanian coin mints from the area (Nishapur, Herat, Marw) have been found from this period until the second reign of Kavadh, where a Sasanian coin dating to 512/3 has been found in Marw. This indicates that the Sasanians under Kavadh had managed to re-conquer Khorasan after successfully dealing with the Hephthalites.[1]
Negotations with the Byzantines over the adoption of Khosrow I
In c.520, Kavad, in order to secure the succession of his youngest son Khosrow I, whose position was threatened by rival brothers and the Mazdakite sect, proposed that Emperor Justin I adopt him. The proposal was initially greeted with enthusiasm by the Byzantine Emperor and his nephew, Justinian, but Justin's quaestor, Proclus, opposed the move, due to the concern of Khosrow possibly later trying to take over the Byzantine throne.[1] The Byzantines instead made a counter-proposal to adopt Khosrow not as a Roman, but a barbarian.[34] In the end the negotiations did not a consensus.[1] Khosrow reportedly felt insulted by the Byzantines, and his attitude deteriorated towards them.[1] Mahbod, who had along with Siyawush acted as the diplomats of the negotations, accused the latter of purposely sabotaging the negotiations.[34] Further accusations were made towards Siyawush, which included the reverence of new deities and having his dead wife buried, which was a violation of Iranian laws.[1] Siyawush was thus most likely a Mazdakite, the religious sect that Kavad originally supported but now had withdrawn his support from. Although Siyawush was a close friend of Kavad and had helped him escape from imprisonment, the latter did not try to prevent his execution, seemingly with the purpose of restricting Siyawush's immensive authority as the head of the Sasanian army, a post which was disliked by the other nobles.[1] Siyawush was executed, and his office was abolished.[35] Despite the breakdown of the negotiations, it was not until 530 that full-scale warfare on the main eastern frontier broke out. In the intervening years, the two sides preferred to wage war by proxy, through Arab allies in the south and Huns in the north.[36]
Hostility between the two powers erupted into conflict when Guaram I, the king of Caucasian Iberia, defected to the Romans in 524–525, after Kavadh tried to convert the Iberians to Zoroastrianism.[37] Sasanian and Roman fighting then broke out in the Transcaucasus region and upper Mesopotamia by 526–527.[38] Kavadh's Arab vassal, al-Mundhir IV ibn al-Mundhir, laid waste to Mesopotamia and slaughtered the monks and nuns.
In 530, Kavadh sent Perozes and Baresmanas at the head of 50,000 men[39] to capture Dara; the two generals, were, however, defeated and killed by the forces of Belisarius. In 531, the Persian general Azarethes managed to defeat Belisarius at the Battle of Callinicum.[40] However, the Sasanian losses were so high that Kavadh removed Azarethes from his post.
Kavadh then organized another invasion of Byzantine territory, in which a large army, commanded by Mihr-Mihroe, Adergoudounbades and Bawi, invaded Mesopotamia and besieged the city of Martyropolis, which at that time was being protected by Buzes and Bessas.[41] However, with winter approaching and Byzantine reinforcements coming from Amida and the sudden death of Kavadh, the Sasanians lifted the siege in November or December.[42]
Kavadh I was succeeded by his youngest son Khosrow I; however, at the beginning of his reign in 531, Bawi, along with other members of the Iranian aristocracy, became involved in a conspiracy in which they tried to overthrow Khosrow and make Kavadh, the son of Kavadh's second eldest son Zamasp (Zames),[44] the king of the Sasanian Empire. Upon learning of the plot, Khosrow executed all his brothers and their offspring, along with Bawi and the other Iranian nobles who were involved.[33] Khosrow also ordered the execution of Kavadh, who was still a child, and was away from the court, being raised by Adergoudounbades. Khosrow sent orders to kill Kavadh, but Adergoudounbades disobeyed and brought him up in secret, until he was betrayed to the shah in 541 by his own son, Bahram (Varranes). Khosrow had him executed, but Kavadh, or someone claiming to be him, managed to flee to the Byzantine Empire.[45]
Legacy
Notes
↑ Although some of Sukhra's sons would later serve Kavadh, the power of the Karens was first restored during the reign of Kavadh's son and successor, Khosrow I Anushirvan (r.531–579), who reportedly regretted Kavadh's approach to the family, and gave them the post of army chief (spahbed) of Khorasan.[11]
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