Language exposure for deaf children

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Language exposure for children is the act of making language readily available and accessible during the critical period for language acquisition. Deaf and hard of hearing children, when compared to their hearing peers, tend to face barriers to accessing language when it comes to ensuring that they will receive accessible language during their formative years. [1] Consequently, deaf and hard of hearing children are more likely to have language deprivation which may lead to cognitive delays, as well as other negative impacts to their health. [2] Early exposure to language enables the brain to more fully develop cognitive function and facilitates the development of linguistic skills, as well as language fluency and comprehension later in life. [3] [4] Hearing parents of deaf and hard of hearing children also face unique barriers when it comes to providing language exposure for their children. Research has informed the development and care of deaf and hard of hearing children who may not know how to start in providing language, though much of this research is centered around children in the United States, limiting generalizability. [5] However, examination of the effects of language exposure for deaf children has resulted in more substantial evidence surrounding the risks of language deprivation and benefits of early language exposure.

Contents

Critical period for deaf and hard of hearing children

The critical period for first language acquisition is a linguistic hypothesis stating that there is a window of time to acquire a language. After this period, it becomes much harder to further acquire a first or second language. Many theories exist on when exactly the critical period for language begins and ends; however, the research shows that when a child does not receive language exposure during their first few years of life, they have long-term deficits in language acquisition.

Much of the research on language exposure, the critical period, and language acquisition are based on spoken languages and children who are hearing. In reality, these same ideas translate to deaf and hard of hearing children as well. For children who can hear and speak, first language exposure usually starts with their parents' native language. The same is true for deaf children with Deaf parents; they are exposed to sign language since birth. However, language exposure for deaf and hard of hearing children born to hearing parents is often delayed. Many deaf and hard of hearing children who are not exposed to language until later in life when they are given hearing devices (e.g., cochlear implant, hearing aids) show syntactic impairments (i.e., impairments in sentence structuring). [6] [7] Research concludes that it is not the hearing loss itself that affects language impairment, but rather if language input was received during their first year of life. [6] Children who were exposed to language during their first year of life but lost their hearing after that year still show normal syntactic development (i.e. language development). [6]

Language Milestones

Language development milestones have been established in some states to enshrine legislative support for child development through language exposure. In California, SB 210 outlines goals for the first five years of a child's life, focusing on receptive language, vocabulary, and expressive language. [8] Similarly, Montana Code §52-2-904 also outlines specific language milestones for deaf and hard of hearing children, with examples in both ASL and spoken english. [9]

Early Hearing Detection and Intervention (EHDI)

Efforts to ensure that children with hearing differences are identified early in infancy and before the end of the critical period for deaf and hard of hearing children include the HRSA-funded Early Hearing Detection and Intervention (EHDI). EDHI programs in the United States are divided into states and territories, and aim to screen, provide diagnoses, develop family support systems, and coordinate services for deaf and hard of hearing children to achieve language milestones. [10] Data is collected from EHDI programs to assess the success of screening and intervention programs in the hopes of optimizing care for deaf and hard of hearing children. [11]

Later language ability

There has been additional research [3] on fluent sign language users and their ability to pick up spoken language later in life. Sign language establishes an equally solid foundation in general language abilities as does a spoken language, whether it be reading, learning a second language, or basic linguistic skills, as long as it is learned in the critical period of language acquisition.

Additionally, research shows that children who learn a sign language alongside a spoken language during their critical period of language acquisition develop comparably to bilingual children learning two spoken languages. [12]

Benefits of language exposure

Sign languages such as American Sign Language have been recognized as official languages after research that started in the 1960s. [13] The research proved that signed languages are real languages with complex structure, syntax, and grammar just like that of spoken languages. [4] Furthermore, they both make use of the same regions in the left hemisphere of the brain for planning and processing language. [14]

Both deaf children and hearing children with proper language exposure and education have normal cognitive developments. In fact, deaf children and hearing children have similar language milestones and timelines. According to the language development and milestone sources, babies that can hear who are exposed to language will typically start to babble (e.g., ma-ma, da-da) between the ages of six to twelve months. [15] Similarly, deaf babies that are exposed to a signed language will start to "babble" with their hands by using organized and repetitive elements of their signed language. [16] [14]

Deaf, hard of hearing, and hearing children have equal potential to develop typical cognitive abilities; deafness does not directly cause any cognitive impairments nor language delays. [17] However, deaf and hard of hearing children are at much higher risk for having inadequate exposure to language during their critical periods which can in turn cause cognitive and language delays. [1] [17]

Risks of language deprivation

Children who experience communication neglect during their infancy or early childhood are at increased risk for language deprivation as they grow older. [18] Language deprivation itself has been associated with poorer health outcomes in deaf and hard-of-hearing adults, and may lead to chronic health issues in adulthood, such as increased risk for diabetes, heart disease, and hypertension. [18] Consequently, inequities in the provision of language exposure may perpetuate inequities in the health and mental health status of Deaf adults, though further research needs to be done to better understand how these disparities occur. [19]

Providing language exposure

There are two primary approaches proposed for exposing deaf and hard of hearing children to language. The first is through sign language and the second is through spoken language. However, it is not necessary to choose one or the other. [20] Research shows that learning two languages, regardless of what languages they are, can provide unique cognitive advantages to bilingual individuals. Furthermore, bilingualism opens up more opportunities for the individual by enabling them to interact with users of multiple languages. [21] For deaf and hard of hearing children in particular, learning both a signed language from birth and spoken/written language as they are able to access those modalities can protect the child from the harms that come from the language deprivation that occurs when a child is delayed in accessing language in any modality. [20]

From birth

About 90–95% of deaf and hard of hearing children are born to hearing parents. Only 5–10% are born to deaf parents. [22] Currently, within the United States there are newborn hearing screening practices in place that inform parents of their newborn's hearing status within the first few weeks of the child's life. If a baby is diagnosed with hearing loss, hospitals usually provide access to a team that includes primary care physicians, audiologists, and other health care providers to help the family decide which path is most appropriate for their family or their child to ensure that the baby develops normally with language. However, some physicians report that they are not confident about informing the parents of deaf and hard of hearing children about other steps to take in addition to visiting an audiologist. [23]

Sign language

When deaf children are born to Deaf parents who use sign language, their language exposure is constant and fully accessible from birth. This is equivalent to the quality of language exposure received by hearing children. These children thus demonstrate typical language acquisition. [24] However, most deaf and hard of hearing children have hearing parents with no experience in sign language. [20] [24] There are many options available to these parents to help them provide their child with as much fully accessible language as possible from birth onward.

First, many schools for the deaf offer sign language classes to parents who want to learn to sign with their child. [25] Some schools even offer parent–infant programs which allow parents to bring their infants to the class and provide both language instruction to the parents, sign language exposure to the infant, and structured play time for the parents and infants to all interact in sign language with signing instructors present to facilitate and answer questions. [25]

For toddlers and preschoolers, there are signing preschool classes offered at most schools for the deaf. [25] These are places where deaf and hard of hearing children can come and spend the school day in fun, language-rich classrooms which may provide more fluent sign language exposure than many hearing parents are able to provide at this point in their journey. Additionally, these preschools provide deaf and hard of hearing children with the much needed chance to start building peer relationships with others who share their language.

Some states in the U.S., such as Tennessee, have also established Deaf mentorship programs to guide families with new deaf and hard of hearing children through the first year of life with their baby. By connecting hearing parents with a Deaf role model, these programs allow parents to glimpse the wonderful adults their child can become, get connected with the Deaf community, and empower them to locate and access other available resources (such as the resources mentioned in this section). [26] [27] [28]

Sign languages may differ by country, and even by region. Support from academic institutions such as Gallaudet University has resulted in global efforts to create an international signing community through student exchanges, many of which provide volunteer programs to improve language exposure for children in countries without formal integration of sign language into primary school curriculum. [29]

Cochlear implants and exposure

Many doctors recommend families with babies diagnosed with hearing loss see an audiologist. To some, an audiologist referral is an attempt to solve a problem of hearing loss. [30] To others, it is seen as an act of denying the baby a chance to explore and become a part of the Deaf community. [30] Since their introduction, there has been heated debate over research on cochlear implants. [30] [31] [32] This surgery is a common recommendation for children born deaf, in order to attempt to get the child to hear, understand, and use spoken language rather than or sometimes in addition to sign language.

The debate mostly centers around the view that deafness is a problem that needs to be fixed, in a phenomenon termed deficit framing, which may include terminology such as "hearing-impaired." [33] Many proud members of the Deaf community view the implantation as trying to fix someone who is already whole, and may find this insulting and even unethical. [30] [31] [32] Others view it as a very real possibility to open doors and give children the opportunity to function with more accessibility in a hearing society. [34]

In 2018, a systematic review of all the literature on cochlear implants and language acquisition outcomes was published which concluded that it is unlikely for most deaf children to catch up to their hearing peers in spoken language acquisition through the use of cochlear implants. [35] However, language outcomes were better the earlier the child was given access to language (in this case spoken language through implants). [35] One solution that has been proposed to this is to provide exposure to sign language for all deaf children starting as close to birth as possible for the parents regardless of whether they plan to pursue cochlear implants or hearing aids later on. [20] This strategy ensures maximum possible language exposure for the children and mitigates the risk of language deprivation often entailed in waiting to see if cochlear implants will be successful for any given child. [21] [20]

Grade school

Unlimited language exposure includes having education options available in one's own language. Access to communication and language is vital for deaf students' success. To ensure deaf children are properly set up for future success in classrooms, early language exposure is essential. In a classroom, access to social and academic communication is equally as important for language and cognitive development.

In the United States of America, the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) and the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) states that a public education should be provided to each child with a disability in the "least restrictive environment" for them. [36] As a broad statement, this is up to interpretation. Often this means that children with hearing loss get access to public schools with an interpreter.

The effectiveness of accommodating with sign language interpreters is dependent on the language status of the deaf and hard of hearing students. Deaf and hard of hearing students that are language deprived will not benefit as much from interpreters in the classroom as deaf and hard of hearing students who have little to no language deprivation would. Students whose only language partner is their interpreter will see far less linguistic benefit than those who have a plethora and variety of language partners in the classroom.Therefore, providing one sign language interpreter may not be enough of an accommodation to create an equitable educational classroom environment for deaf and hard of hearing students in mainstream classrooms. [37]

While schools in the United States that teach primarily in sing language are rare compared to mainstream public schools, each state typically has at least one Deaf school where Deaf children can attend and receive their education in sign language. A few examples are The Learning Center for the Deaf, the Maryland School for the Deaf, the Texas School for the Deaf, etc. Other deaf schools may teach in an oralist method, prohibiting signing and focusing only on speech, a total communication method, with a pidgin sign language accompanying a speaking teacher, also known as simultaneous communication, and a bilingual approach that includes both sign and speech, but in a separated way. [38]

LEAD-K

LEAD-K stands for Language Equality and Acquisition for Deaf Kids. LEAD-K is an American campaign promoting language acquisition and kindergarten readiness for Deaf and hard of hearing children ages 0–5. [39] LEAD-K recognizes Deaf children may struggle socially and academically when entering school due to inadequate language exposure in their early stages of life. The LEAD-K organization has developed model legislation to promote the success of Deaf and hard of hearing children through required assessments to ensure that certain language milestones are met. [40] The these assessments may be conducted in ASL and/or written/spoken English.

StateLegislationStatus
CASB 210Passed in 2015 [41]
HIAct 177Established in 2016 [42]
KSSB 323Passed in 2016
SDHB 1228Passed in 2020 [43]
GAHB 844Passed in 2018 [44]
LAHB 199Passed in 2018 [45]
MIHB 5777Passed in 2022 [46]
RISB 2825Rejected in 2016 [47]
MIHB 6005Rejected in 2016 [47]
NHHB 554Rejected in 2017 [47]
WVHB 2571Rejected in 2017 [47]
MOHB 481Rejected in 2017 [47]
ALHB 253Rejected in 2018 [47]
TX*Statewide report in 2022* [47]

LEAD-K hopes the data that would be collected from assessments proposed by their bills would be used to hold state education systems accountable if their deaf and hard of hearing students seem to be falling behind on the milestones they should be meeting. The intention of LEAD-K is to advocate for early language exposure and steady language progress for all children. Reaching the right language milestones on a consistent timeline can help deaf and hard of hearing children maintain a healthy developmental path. [48] Support for LEAD-K initiatives have primarily been from organizations that support Deaf activism, such as the National Association of the Deaf and the National Black Deaf Advocates, both of whom have led campaigns to raise awareness. [49] [50] Opposition to LEAD-K initiatives from advocates for spoken language communication for deaf children and adults, including the Alexander Graham Bell Association, the American Speech-Language Association, [51] and the American Cochlear Implant Alliance.

Notes

  1. 1 2 Humphries, Tom; Kushalnagar, Poorna; Mathur, Gaurav; Napoli, Donna Jo; Padden, Carol; Rathmann, Christian (21 June 2014). "Ensuring language acquisition for deaf children: What linguists can do". Language. 90 (2): e31–e52. doi:10.1353/lan.2014.0036. S2CID   145630667. Project MUSE   547121.
  2. ↑ Hall, Wyatte C. (2017-05-01). "What You Don't Know Can Hurt You: The Risk of Language Deprivation by Impairing Sign Language Development in Deaf Children". Maternal and Child Health Journal. 21 (5): 961–965. doi:10.1007/s10995-017-2287-y. ISSN   1573-6628. PMC   5392137 . PMID   28185206.
  3. 1 2 Mayberry, Rachel I. (2010). "Early Language Acquisition and Adult Language Ability: What Sign Language Reveals About the Critical Period for Language". In Nathan, Peter; Marschark, Marc; Spencer, Patricia Elizabeth (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Deaf Studies, Language, and Education, Vol. 2. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195390032.013.0019. ISBN   978-0-19-539003-2.
  4. 1 2 Meier, Richard P. (1991). "Language Acquisition by Deaf Children". American Scientist. 79 (1): 60–70. Bibcode:1991AmSci..79...60M. JSTOR   29774278.
  5. ↑ Szarkowski, Amy; Moeller, Mary Pat; Gale, Elaine; Smith, Trudy; Birdsey, Bianca C; Moodie, Sheila T F; Carr, Gwen; Stredler-Brown, Arlene; Yoshinaga-Itano, Christine; FCEI-DHH International Consensus Panel; Berke, Michele; Binder, Doris; Carr, Gwen; Cloete, Natasha; Crace, Jodee (2024-02-29). "Family-Centered Early Intervention Deaf/Hard of Hearing (FCEI-DHH): Cultural & Global Implications". Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education. 29 (SI): SI27–SI39. doi:10.1093/deafed/enad036. ISSN   1081-4159.
  6. 1 2 3 Friedmann, Naama; Rusou, Dana (December 2015). "Critical period for first language: the crucial role of language input during the first year of life". Current Opinion in Neurobiology. 35: 27–34. doi:10.1016/j.conb.2015.06.003. PMID   26111432. S2CID   44264290.
  7. ↑ Mayberry, Rachel I.; Kluender, Robert (November 2018). "Rethinking the critical period for language: New insights into an old question from American Sign Language". Bilingualism: Language and Cognition. 21 (5): 886–905. doi: 10.1017/S1366728917000724 . PMC   6329394 . PMID   30643489.
  8. ↑ "SB 210 Language Development Milestones - Deaf Education (CA Dept of Education)". www.cde.ca.gov. Retrieved 2024-12-18.
  9. ↑ "52-2-904. Language development advisory committee, MCA". archive.legmt.gov. Retrieved 2024-12-18.
  10. ↑ "Strengthening Early Hearing Detection and Intervention (EHDI) | MCHB". mchb.hrsa.gov. Retrieved 2024-12-16.
  11. ↑ CDC (2024-09-25). "Information About Early Hearing Detection and Intervention (EHDI) Programs". Hearing Loss in Children. Retrieved 2024-12-16.
  12. ↑ Petitto, Laura Ann; Katerelos, Marina; Levy, Bronna G.; Gauna, Kristine; Tétreault, Karine; Ferraro, Vittoria (June 2001). "Bilingual signed and spoken language acquisition from birth: implications for the mechanisms underlying early bilingual language acquisition". Journal of Child Language. 28 (2): 453–496. doi:10.1017/S0305000901004718. PMID   11449947. S2CID   33451074.
  13. ↑ Henry, Elizabeth. "Sign Language: ASL: Academic acceptance and official recognition". LibGuides. Gallaudet University Library.
  14. 1 2 Petitto, Laura Ann; Zatorre, Robert J.; Gauna, Kristine; Nikelski, E. J.; Dostie, Deanna; Evans, Alan C. (5 December 2000). "Speech-like cerebral activity in profoundly deaf people processing signed languages: Implications for the neural basis of human language". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 97 (25): 13961–13966. doi: 10.1073/pnas.97.25.13961 . PMC   17683 . PMID   11106400.
  15. ↑ "Stages of Language Development Chart". Kid Sense Child Development. Retrieved 2021-04-07.
  16. ↑ Angier, Natalie (22 March 1991). "Deaf Babies Use Their Hands To Babble, Researcher Finds". The New York Times.
  17. 1 2 Mayberry, Rachel I. (2002). "Cognitive development in deaf children: The interface of language and perception in neuropsychology". Handbook of neuropsychology. Vol. 8. Part II. pp. 71–107. S2CID   18019169.[ ISBN missing ]
  18. 1 2 Kushalnagar, Poorna; Ryan, Claire; Paludneviciene, Raylene; Spellun, Arielle; Gulati, Sanjay (2020-10-01). "Adverse Childhood Communication Experiences Associated With an Increased Risk of Chronic Diseases in Adults Who Are Deaf". American Journal of Preventive Medicine. 59 (4): 548–554. doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2020.04.016. ISSN   0749-3797. PMC   7508773 . PMID   32636047.
  19. ↑ Rogers, Katherine D.; Rowlandson, Aleix; Harkness, James; Shields, Gemma; Young, Alys (2024-04-16). Megahed Ibrahim El-eglany, Ateya (ed.). "Health outcomes in Deaf signing populations: A systematic review". PLOS ONE. 19 (4): e0298479. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0298479 . ISSN   1932-6203. PMC   11020444 . PMID   38625906.
  20. 1 2 3 4 5 Humphries, Tom; Kushalnagar, Poorna; Mathur, Gaurav; Napoli, Donna Jo; Padden, Carol; Rathmann, Christian; Smith, Scott R (December 2012). "Language acquisition for deaf children: Reducing the harms of zero tolerance to the use of alternative approaches". Harm Reduction Journal. 9 (1): 16. doi: 10.1186/1477-7517-9-16 . PMC   3384464 . PMID   22472091.
  21. 1 2 Hall, Wyatte C. (May 2017). "What You Don't Know Can Hurt You: The Risk of Language Deprivation by Impairing Sign Language Development in Deaf Children". Maternal and Child Health Journal. 21 (5): 961–965. doi:10.1007/s10995-017-2287-y. PMC   5392137 . PMID   28185206.
  22. ↑ "Quick Statistics About Hearing". NIDCD. 2015-08-18. Retrieved 2017-07-27.
  23. ↑ Goedert, Martha Hoffman; Moeller, Mary Pat; White, Karl R. (March 2011). "Midwives' Knowledge, Attitudes, and Practices Related to Newborn Hearing Screening". Journal of Midwifery & Women's Health. 56 (2): 147–153. doi:10.1111/j.1542-2011.2011.00026.x. PMC   3068862 . PMID   21429080.
  24. 1 2 Hill, Joseph C.; Lillo-Martin, Diane C.; Wood, Sandra K. (2018). Sign Languages. doi:10.4324/9780429020872. ISBN   978-0-429-02087-2. S2CID   189700971.[ page needed ]
  25. 1 2 3 "US program and services chart". pp. 210-217 in: "Educational Programs for Deaf Students". American Annals of the Deaf. 165 (2): 157–227. 2 September 2020. doi:10.1353/aad.2020.0015. JSTOR   26983935. Project MUSE   763746.
  26. ↑ Hamilton, Beth (2017). The Deaf Mentor Program: Benefits to Families and Professionals (Thesis). ProQuest   1987608055.
  27. ↑ "Breaking Ground 101 - Tennessee Deaf Mentor Program". www.tn.gov. Retrieved 2021-04-12.
  28. ↑ Watkins, Susan; Pittman, Paula; Walden, Beth (1998). "The Deaf Mentor Experimental Project for Young Children Who Are Deaf and Their Families". American Annals of the Deaf. 143 (1): 29–34. doi:10.1353/aad.2012.0098. PMID   9557330. S2CID   24279271. Project MUSE   383859.
  29. ↑ "Deaf International Exchange Opportunities". MIUSA. Retrieved 2024-12-18.
  30. 1 2 3 4 Crouch, Robert A. (1997). "Letting the Deaf Be Deaf Reconsidering the Use of Cochlear Implants in Prelingually Deaf Children". The Hastings Center Report. 27 (4): 14–21. doi:10.2307/3528774. JSTOR   3528774. PMID   9271717.
  31. 1 2 Lane, Harlan; Bahan, Benjamin (October 1998). "Article Commentary: Ethics of cochlear implantation in young children: A review and reply from a Deaf-World perspective". Otolaryngology–Head and Neck Surgery. 119 (4): 297–313. doi:10.1016/S0194-5998(98)70070-1. PMID   9781982. S2CID   23376928.
  32. 1 2 Cooper, Amelia (2019). "Hear Me Out". Missouri Medicine. 116 (6): 469–471. PMC   6913847 . PMID   31911722.
  33. ↑ "Deaf Awareness". National Deaf Center. Retrieved 2024-12-17.
  34. ↑ Christiansen, John B.; Leigh, Irene W. (1 May 2004). "Children With Cochlear Implants: Changing Parent and Deaf Community Perspectives". Archives of Otolaryngology–Head & Neck Surgery. 130 (5): 673–677. doi: 10.1001/archotol.130.5.673 . PMID   15148196.
  35. 1 2 Ruben, Robert J. (June 2018). "Language development in the pediatric cochlear implant patient: Language pediatric cochlear implant patient". Laryngoscope Investigative Otolaryngology. 3 (3): 209–213. doi:10.1002/lio2.156. PMC   6057214 . PMID   30062136.
  36. ↑ "A Guide to Disability Rights Laws". www.ada.gov. Retrieved 2017-08-06.
  37. ↑ Caselli, Naomi K.; Hall, Wyatte C.; Henner, Jonathan (November 2020). "American Sign Language Interpreters in Public Schools: An Illusion of Inclusion that Perpetuates Language Deprivation". Maternal and Child Health Journal. 24 (11): 1323–1329. doi:10.1007/s10995-020-02975-7. PMID   32666224. S2CID   220505945.
  38. ↑ Gascon-Ramos, M. (2008). "Well-being in deaf children: A framework of understanding". Educational and Child Psychology. 25 (2): 57–71. doi:10.53841/bpsecp.2008.25.2.57. S2CID   146315456.
  39. ↑ 2021. LEAD-K FAQ. Language Equality and Acquisition for Deaf Kids. https://www.lead-k.org/leadkfaq/
  40. ↑ "MODEL LEGISLATION FOR STATES". Language Equality and Acquisition for Deaf Kids. 2018-11-23. Retrieved 2024-12-18.
  41. ↑ "SB 210- CHAPTERED". leginfo.legislature.ca.gov. Retrieved 2024-12-18.
  42. ↑ "Early Language Working Group". health.hawaii.gov. Retrieved 2024-12-18.
  43. ↑ Kim, Stefani (2020-03-27). "South Dakota Governor Signs Bill for Broader Count of Students with Hearing Loss". The Hearing Review. Retrieved 2024-12-18.
  44. ↑ "Georgia HB844 | 2017-2018 | Regular Session". LegiScan. Retrieved 2024-12-18.
  45. ↑ "Louisiana HB199 | 2018 | Regular Session". LegiScan. Retrieved 2024-12-18.
  46. ↑ "Michigan HB5777 | 2021-2022 | 101st Legislature". LegiScan. Retrieved 2024-12-18.
  47. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 "Language Acquisition Bills Nationwide". www.livebinders.com. Retrieved 2024-12-18.
  48. ↑ Payne-Tsoupros, Christina (2019). "Lessons from the LEAD-K Campaign for Language Equality for Deaf and Hard of Hearing Children". Loyola University Chicago Law Journal. 51 (1): 107. SSRN   3431956.
  49. ↑ NorCalMedia (2018-02-21). LEAD-K and NBDA Announcement . Retrieved 2024-12-18– via Vimeo.
  50. ↑ The National Association of the Deaf (NAD) (2017-10-11). The NAD and LEAD-K Partnership . Retrieved 2024-12-18– via YouTube.
  51. ↑ "Language Equality and Acquisition for Deaf Kids (LEAD-K)". American Speech-Language-Hearing Association. Retrieved 2024-12-18.

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Home sign is a gestural communication system, often invented spontaneously by a deaf child who lacks accessible linguistic input. Home sign systems often arise in families where a deaf child is raised by hearing parents and is isolated from the Deaf community. Because the deaf child does not receive signed or spoken language input, these children are referred to as linguistically isolated.

A child of deaf adult, often known by the acronym CODA, is a person who was raised by one or more deaf parents or legal guardians. Ninety percent of children born to deaf adults are not deaf, resulting in a significant and widespread community of CODAs around the world, although whether the child is hearing, deaf, or hard of hearing has no effect on the definition. The acronym KODA is sometimes used to refer to CODAs under the age of 18.

Bimodal bilingualism is an individual or community's bilingual competency in at least one oral language and at least one sign language, which utilize two different modalities. An oral language consists of a vocal-aural modality versus a signed language which consists of a visual-spatial modality. A substantial number of bimodal bilinguals are children of deaf adults (CODA) or other hearing people who learn sign language for various reasons. Deaf people as a group have their own sign language(s) and culture that is referred to as Deaf, but invariably live within a larger hearing culture with its own oral language. Thus, "most deaf people are bilingual to some extent in [an oral] language in some form". In discussions of multilingualism in the United States, bimodal bilingualism and bimodal bilinguals have often not been mentioned or even considered. This is in part because American Sign Language, the predominant sign language used in the U.S., only began to be acknowledged as a natural language in the 1960s. However, bimodal bilinguals share many of the same traits as traditional bilinguals, as well as differing in some interesting ways, due to the unique characteristics of the Deaf community. Bimodal bilinguals also experience similar neurological benefits as do unimodal bilinguals, with significantly increased grey matter in various brain areas and evidence of increased plasticity as well as neuroprotective advantages that can help slow or even prevent the onset of age-related cognitive diseases, such as Alzheimer's and dementia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Deaf education</span> Education of the deaf and hard of hearing

Deaf education is the education of students with any degree of hearing loss or deafness. This may involve, but does not always, individually-planned, systematically-monitored teaching methods, adaptive materials, accessible settings, and other interventions designed to help students achieve a higher level of self-sufficiency and success in the school and community than they would achieve with a typical classroom education. There are different language modalities used in educational setting where students get varied communication methods. A number of countries focus on training teachers to teach deaf students with a variety of approaches and have organizations to aid deaf students.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cross modal plasticity</span> Reorganization of neurons in the brain to integrate the function of two or more sensory systems

Cross modal plasticity is the adaptive reorganization of neurons to integrate the function of two or more sensory systems. Cross modal plasticity is a type of neuroplasticity and often occurs after sensory deprivation due to disease or brain damage. The reorganization of the neural network is greatest following long-term sensory deprivation, such as congenital blindness or pre-lingual deafness. In these instances, cross modal plasticity can strengthen other sensory systems to compensate for the lack of vision or hearing. This strengthening is due to new connections that are formed to brain cortices that no longer receive sensory input.

Prelingual deafness refers to deafness that occurs before learning speech or language. Speech and language typically begin to develop very early with infants saying their first words by age one. Therefore, prelingual deafness is considered to occur before the age of one, where a baby is either born deaf or loses hearing before the age of one. This hearing loss may occur for a variety of reasons and impacts cognitive, social, and language development.

Language deprivation is associated with the lack of linguistic stimuli that are necessary for the language acquisition processes in an individual. Research has shown that early exposure to a first language will predict future language outcomes. Experiments involving language deprivation are very scarce due to the ethical controversy associated with it. Roger Shattuck, an American writer, called language deprivation research "The Forbidden Experiment" because it required the deprivation of a normal human. Similarly, experiments were performed by depriving animals of social stimuli to examine psychosis. Although there has been no formal experimentation on this topic, there are several cases of language deprivation. The combined research on these cases has furthered the research in the critical period hypothesis and sensitive period in language acquisition.

Language acquisition is a natural process in which infants and children develop proficiency in the first language or languages that they are exposed to. The process of language acquisition is varied among deaf children. Deaf children born to deaf parents are typically exposed to a sign language at birth and their language acquisition follows a typical developmental timeline. However, at least 90% of deaf children are born to hearing parents who use a spoken language at home. Hearing loss prevents many deaf children from hearing spoken language to the degree necessary for language acquisition. For many deaf children, language acquisition is delayed until the time that they are exposed to a sign language or until they begin using amplification devices such as hearing aids or cochlear implants. Deaf children who experience delayed language acquisition, sometimes called language deprivation, are at risk for lower language and cognitive outcomes. However, profoundly deaf children who receive cochlear implants and auditory habilitation early in life often achieve expressive and receptive language skills within the norms of their hearing peers; age at implantation is strongly and positively correlated with speech recognition ability. Early access to language through signed language or technology have both been shown to prepare children who are deaf to achieve fluency in literacy skills.

Deafness has varying definitions in cultural and medical contexts. In medical contexts, the meaning of deafness is hearing loss that precludes a person from understanding spoken language, an audiological condition. In this context it is written with a lower case d. It later came to be used in a cultural context to refer to those who primarily communicate through sign language regardless of hearing ability, often capitalized as Deaf and referred to as "big D Deaf" in speech and sign. The two definitions overlap but are not identical, as hearing loss includes cases that are not severe enough to impact spoken language comprehension, while cultural Deafness includes hearing people who use sign language, such as children of deaf adults.

The deaf community in Australia is a diverse cultural and linguistic minority group. Deaf communities have many distinctive cultural characteristics, some of which are shared across many different countries. These characteristics include language, values and behaviours. The Australian deaf community relies primarily on Australian Sign Language, or Auslan. Those in the Australian deaf community experience some parts of life differently than those in the broader hearing world, such as access to education and health care.

Language deprivation in deaf and hard-of-hearing children is a delay in language development that occurs when sufficient exposure to language, spoken or signed, is not provided in the first few years of a deaf or hard of hearing child's life, often called the critical or sensitive period. Early intervention, parental involvement, and other resources all work to prevent language deprivation. Children who experience limited access to language—spoken or signed—may not develop the necessary skills to successfully assimilate into the academic learning environment. There are various educational approaches for teaching deaf and hard of hearing individuals. Decisions about language instruction is dependent upon a number of factors including extent of hearing loss, availability of programs, and family dynamics.

The Language Equality and Acquisition for Deaf Kids (LEAD-K) campaign is a grassroots organization. Its mission is to work towards kindergarten readiness for deaf and hard-of-hearing children by promoting access to both American Sign Language (ASL) and English. LEAD-K defines kindergarten readiness as perceptive and expressive proficiency in language by the age of five. Deaf and hard-of-hearing children are at high risk of being cut off from language, language deprivation, which can have far-reaching consequences in many areas of development. There are a variety of methods to expose deaf and hard-of-hearing children to language, including hearing aids, cochlear implants, sign language, and speech and language interventions such as auditory/verbal therapy and Listening and Spoken Language therapy. The LEAD-K initiative was established in response to perceived high rates of delayed language acquisition or language deprivation displayed among that demographic, leading to low proficiency in English skills later in life.

According to The Deaf Unit Cairo, there are approximately 1.2 million deaf and hard of hearing individuals in Egypt aged five and older. Deafness can be detected in certain cases at birth or throughout childhood in terms of communication delays and detecting language deprivation. The primary language used amongst the deaf population in Egypt is Egyptian Sign Language (ESL) and is widely used throughout the community in many environments such as schools, deaf organizations, etc. This article focuses on the many different aspects of Egyptian life and the impacts it has on the deaf community.

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