Longleaf pine ecosystem

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Naturally regenerated longleaf pines in DeSoto National Forest, Mississippi LongleafPine.jpg
Naturally regenerated longleaf pines in DeSoto National Forest, Mississippi

The longleaf pine ecosystem is a temperate coniferous forest ecosystem found within the Southern United States. Spanning pine savannas, sandhills and montane forests, it includes many rare plant and animal species, and is one of the most biodiverse in North America. [1] Once one of the largest ecosystems in North America, from Virginia south to Florida and west to Texas, it now occupies less than a quarter of the original range. Degradation of the ecosystem is partially due to excessive timber harvesting, urbanization, and fire exclusion. Although the ecosystem is heavily fragmented at present, it still carries a great diversity of plant and animal species, many of which are endemic. A range of techniques, including planting longleaf pine seedlings, introducing prescribed burning regimens, managing native ground cover, and controlling invasive species within the ecosystem, are used in attempting to preserve this threatened ecosystem.

Contents

Original range

During the Ice Age, when the North American continental glaciers extended as far south as parts of the Ohio River, the climate was colder and drier; longleaf pine and associated species grew in coastal regions away from the ice, from Florida to Mexico. During the Holocene, the ice retreated, the climate became warm and dry, and the longleaf pine ecosystem established itself in its historical range. [2] [3] [4]

The longleaf pine ecosystem was first described in the early 1500s by the Spaniard Hernando de Soto, [5] [6] : 4  and in accounts by Native Americans recorded in journals of European explorers as well. [6] : 3–4  Prior to intensive settlement this ecosystem consisted of 70 million acres (280,000 km2) of pure and 20 million acres (81,000 km2) of mixed longleaf pine stands; all together the total was 90 million acres (360,000 km2). The ecosystem extended from southeastern Virginia down to northern Florida over to eastern Texas, forming the dominant land cover in the coastal plain of these states. [3] [7] There is some doubt about the original extent due to lack of systematic data from the coastal regions of Florida to Mexico. [8] There is, however, extensive literature from various explorers of southeastern North America dating as far back as 1608, when Captain John Smith recorded his accounts of the forest and the first exports of products from pines close to the new settlement in Jamestown, Virginia. [3] [8]

Role of fire

The longleaf pine ecosystem is a fire climax community, that is "a plant and animal community that is limited by and adapted to an early successional stage by frequent fire disturbances". [9] Fire destroys other pine species and hardwoods which would outcompete the longleaf pines. [7]

Before Europeons established themselves in the area, Native Americans set fires regularly [10] in order to encourage the growth of plants eaten by game animals and to clear undergrowth for ease of occupation and movement in the forest. Wildfire, ignited by lightning from summer thunderstorms, also played a role in the ecosystem. Once lit by humans or lightning, fires burned across the landscape for days, weeks, and even months due to the lack of habitat fragmentation by roads, railroads, or cities. [3] [10]

Animal and plant diversity

Red cockaded woodpecker at nest cavity in longleaf pine Picoides borealisPCCA20060409-3008B.jpg
Red cockaded woodpecker at nest cavity in longleaf pine

The longleaf pine ecosystem is one of the richest habitats in North America, and its forest floor is one of the most diverse of its kind in the world. [11] As of 2001, there are an estimated 27 federal endangered species and 100 species of concern that reside in the ecosystem. Some of the species in this ecosystem have limited range due to topography and climate of some regions of the system. [12] The most notable species of the ecosystem are the longleaf pine, wiregrass, and red-cockaded woodpecker, all of which were found throughout the historic range. [13] [14] The longleaf pine (Pinus palustris) is characterized as having bushy clusters of 10 inches (25 cm) long needles and large 6 to 12 inches (15 to 30 cm) long pine cones. These pines are capable of growing 80 to 100 feet (24 to 30 m) tall with a diameter of 2.5 feet (80 cm) across, only in well suited soil. The longleaf pine is notable for its thick bark, which aids in the species' resistance to fire and to southern pine beetle outbreaks. [15]

Wiregrass ecosystem on the Gulf Coast GRAND BAY WIRE GRASS GB-6 (8266181713).jpg
Wiregrass ecosystem on the Gulf Coast

The grass species Carolina wiregrass (Aristida stricta), which is found in the northern portion, and southern wiregrass (Aristida beyrichiana), which is found in the southern portion, are the dominant grass species of the habitat. These grass species occur in clumps which measure 6 inches (15 cm) across and have flat leaves that reach 20 inches (51 cm) long. These wiregrass species play a key role in the reproduction and spread of the longleaf pine, as they help to carry fire across the land. [12]

The red-cockaded woodpecker (Picoides borealis) was once a common inhabitant of this habitat, but since the decline of the ecosystem it has been placed on the federal endangered species list. The woodpecker adults are characterized by being 7 inches (18 cm) long, with a black head, white cheek patch, and barred back with black and white stripes that give the appearance of a latter. [12] [16] In males, a red strip atop the head is only visible when young or up close. This woodpecker carefully selects longleaf pine, or associated pine species of the area, for heart rot disease. Once a tree is selected, excavation of a cavity is achieved usually taking 2 years to complete. [12]

A field with Sarracenia leucophylla (white-topped pitcher plant). Scenes such as this used to be common in the coastal plains of the southeast US. Sarracenia leucophylla field.jpg
A field with Sarracenia leucophylla (white-topped pitcher plant). Scenes such as this used to be common in the coastal plains of the southeast US.

Embedded within the longleaf pine ecosystem are countless varieties of microhabitats. Among the more unique of these habitats are pitcher plant bogs. Pitcher plant communities are specialized for sites with abundant moisture but little nutrients. Many bog ecosystems exist on a porous sand surmounting impervious clay, which traps rainwater. On a hill, escape of water from saturated areas can result in the formation of a seep and a type of bog called a seepage slope. In flatwood ecosystems, bogs on flat terrain may be called wet prairies. Forests typically grade into a wetland bog habitat, forming an ecotone that harbors diverse species. [17]

Pitcher plants have modified leaves shaped into hollow tubes (that look like a water pitcher), which attract insects. Downward pointing hairs and slippery walls make escape difficult and the insects are dissolved and digested by enzymes in the bottom of the pitcher. Other plants trap small insects on flat sticky leaves before slowly digesting them. Several types of pitcher plants as well as other carnivorous plants grow in the longleaf pine ecosystem. Species include the hooded pitcher plant, trumpet pitcher plant, white-topped pitcher plant, and parrot pitcher plant. Other bog plants include colic-root; goldcrest; meadow-beauty (also called deerflower); white-topped sedge; orange milkwort (also called "bog Cheetos" because of their resemblance to the snack brand); bog-buttons (also called "hatpins"); several species of orchids; and many other wildflowers. Both soil moisture conditions and full sun are critical to these plants. Most of these bog plants have little shade tolerance. Pitcher plant bogs are fire dependent habitats. The frequent fires common to the longleaf ecosystem keep woody shrubs from encroaching on bogs. Without fire, moisture-loving shrubs invade drying up bogs and shading out the herbaceous plants. [17]

Despite the longleaf pine ecosystem's heavy endangerment and degradation, new species are still being described from it due to its heavy biodiversity. In 2018, one of the world's largest salamanders, the reticulated siren, was described from wetlands in the longleaf pine ecosystem along the Gulf Coastal Plain. [18]

Decline

The decline of the ecosystem proceeded slowly at first, as the Native American population declined (largely due to spread of Old World epidemic diseases) and with it deliberately set fires. [3] European settlers in turn gradually began using fire as a management tool, similar to existing traditions in England, Scotland, and Ireland. [3] Introduction of the razorback hog (Sus scrofa scrofa) caused considerable damage to plants, including longleaf pine seedlings. [5] [6] : 4 

Over the 17th and 18th centuries exploitation and clearing of the forest increased. [5] [6] : 5–6  Small living quarters such as log cabins were built using longleaf pine logs. As the tree made good lumber it was soon being exported. [3] [8] Longleaf pine resin was extracted for production of naval stores. To obtain the resin from the live longleaf pine, pioneers first cut and removed wood exposing a deep cavity, called a box at the base of the tree. Next a medium-sized, V-shaped cut was performed, above the box to start the resin flow into the box. As resin flowed into the box, it was collected and placed in barrels for shipment. Years afterward the tree itself would become weak and sensitive to wind storms. [6] : 7 

Roads and railroads were constructed in various locations throughout the southeast beginning in the 1800s for transportation and forest harvesting, which together with settlement building caused habitat fragmentation in the ecosystem. [6] : 8 

After the Civil War in 1865, the agriculture boom started. Many pioneers had received word about the cash crop cotton, soon land purchase and the clearing of land increased significantly. [6] : 10–11  With this sudden shift in land use, the additions of large plantations were established in the ecosystem, as well. In result of this boom plus the addition of forest harvesting and transportation right of ways, further habitat loss was increasing at an alarming rate. [5] [6] : 9–11 

During the early 1900s, more habitat lost was due to World War I. [6] : 11–12  Vast acres of the longleaf pine in the southeast were cleared to aid in ship building for the war effort. With this push in demand, 1909 marked the peak of longleaf pine lumber production. At this period, it was realized that decline in the ecosystem was eminent through the bare landscape with little regeneration of longleaf pine. [5] [6] : 11–12  So to compensate for loss, replanting of some clear-cut areas in the ecosystem was planted by land owners and Civilian Conservation Corps enrollees during the Great Depression era of the mid-1900s. Although in some sectors of landowners in the southeast learned over the years that the longleaf pine was a slow growing tree, and thus began replanting the ecosystem with faster growing trees species like slash and loblolly pines. With this replanting, faster tree growth and greater lumber production was achieved. [5]

As of 2011, only 3 million acres (12,000 km2) or so of the longleaf pine ecosystem are left in North America. This significant drop in the ecosystem acreage marks a 97 percent decrease. In overlook of the ecosystem, today, it is described as being patchy and uneven in the distribution across the landscape. [19] [20] Of the now 3 percent ecosystem acreage, there are a documented 8,856 acres (3,584 ha) of old growth longleaf pine stands left. [20] [21]

Contemporary issues

Concerns for the longleaf pine ecosystem were raised in the early 1900s. [5] [6] : 11–12  These concerns were focused on regeneration of harvested longleaf pine stands and remaining pine stands in the ecosystem. Men like Henry E. Hardtner and Herman H. Chapman were among the first to collaborate ways to implement longleaf regeneration in the ecosystem. [22] Later the United States Forest Service recognized and had studied the need of fire in the ecosystem burning (man-lit fire) was implemented on national forest. [3]

The major concerns for the longleaf pine ecosystem in the 21st century are urbanization and fire suppression. [19] With the North American population increasing by roughly 2.5 million people a year, the competition for space is increasing. [23] Threat to the longleaf pine ecosystem is emanate through land clearing for commercial businesses and housing developments. [7] Fire suppression is also ultimately caused by development, because the increase in the wildland-urban interface results in increased human endangerment from wildfires and an increased incentive to suppress them. The habitat fragmentation resulting from development has also precluded the large-scale wildfires which historically maintained the ecosystem. [24] The lack of fire in the remaining ecosystem has resulted in its further deterioration. [25] In result, the federal government and state government agencies in Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, Texas, and Virginia have teamed up to provide aid to this critical ecosystem. This aid comes in the form of cost share programs, set up by states to assist private land owners in education, financial aid, and guidance on the longleaf pine ecosystem restoration. [19]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Longleaf pine</span> Species of plant (tree)

The longleaf pine is a pine species native to the Southeastern United States, found along the coastal plain from East Texas to southern Virginia, extending into northern and central Florida. In this area it is also known as "yellow pine" or "long leaf yellow pine", although it is properly just one out of a number of species termed yellow pine. It reaches a height of 30–35 m (98–115 ft) and a diameter of 0.7 m (28 in). In the past, before extensive logging, they reportedly grew to 47 m (154 ft) with a diameter of 1.2 m (47 in). The tree is a cultural symbol of the Southern United States, being the official state tree of Alabama. This particular species is one of the eight pine tree species that falls under the "Pine" designation as the state tree of North Carolina.

<i>Pinus elliottii</i> Species of conifer tree

Pinus elliottii, commonly known as slash pine, is a conifer tree native to the Southeastern United States. Slash pine is named after the "slashes" – swampy ground overgrown with trees and bushes – that constitute its habitat. Other common names include swamp pine, yellow slash pine, and southern Florida pine. Slash pine has two different varieties: P. e. var. elliottii and P. e. var. densa. Historically, slash pine has been an important economic timber for naval stores, turpentine, and resin. The wood of slash pine is known for its unusually high strength, especially for a pine. It exceeds many hardwoods and is even comparable to very dense woods such as black ironwood.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Red-cockaded woodpecker</span> Species of bird

The red-cockaded woodpecker is a woodpecker endemic to the southeastern United States. It is a federally endangered species under the Endangered Species Act of 1973.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sandhill</span> Type of ecological community or xeric wildfire-maintained ecosystem

A sandhill is a type of ecological community or xeric wildfire-maintained ecosystem. It is not the same as a sand dune. It features very short fire return intervals, one to five years. Without fire, sandhills undergo ecological succession and become more oak dominated.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Flatwoods</span> Ecological community in the southeastern coastal plain of North America

Flatwoods, pineywoods, pine savannas and longleaf pine–wiregrass ecosystem are terms that refer to an ecological community in the southeastern coastal plain of North America. Flatwoods are an ecosystem maintained by wildfire or prescribed fire and are dominated by longleaf pine, and slash pine in the tree canopy and saw palmetto, gallberry and other flammable evergreen shrubs in the understory, along with a high diversity of herb species. It was once one of the dominant ecosystem types of southeastern North America. Although grasses and pines are characteristic of this system, the precise composition changes from west to east, that is, from Texas to Florida. In Louisiana, savannas even differ between the east and west side of the Mississippi River. The key factor maintaining this habitat type is recurring fire. Without fire, the habitat is eventually invaded by other species of woody plants.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sandhills (Carolina)</span> Region of the southeast United States

The Sandhills or Carolina Sandhills is a 10-35 mi wide physiographic region within the U.S. Atlantic Coastal Plain province, along the updip (inland) margin of this province in the states of North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia. The extent of the Carolina Sandhills is shown in maps of the ecoregions of North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kisatchie National Forest</span> National forest in Louisiana, US

Kisatchie National Forest, the only National forest in Louisiana, United States, is located in the forested piney hills and hardwood bottoms of seven central and northern parishes. It is part of the Cenozoic uplands and has large areas of longleaf pine forests. It is one of the largest pieces of natural landscape in Louisiana, with some 604,000 acres (2,440 km2) of public land, more than half of which is vital longleaf pine and flatwoods vegetation. These support many rare plant and animal species. There are also rare habitats, such as hillside seepage bogs and calcareous prairies. The forest also contains and provides a buffer for the Kisatchie Hills Wilderness, a nationally designated wilderness area that contributes to protecting biodiversity of the coastal plain region of the United States.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fire ecology</span> Study of fire in ecosystems

Fire ecology is a scientific discipline concerned with the effects of fire on natural ecosystems. Many ecosystems, particularly prairie, savanna, chaparral and coniferous forests, have evolved with fire as an essential contributor to habitat vitality and renewal. Many plant species in fire-affected environments use fire to germinate, establish, or to reproduce. Wildfire suppression not only endangers these species, but also the animals that depend upon them.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Silvopasture</span> Agricultural practice of grazing animals in woodland

Silvopasture is the practice of integrating trees, forage, and the grazing of domesticated animals in a mutually beneficial way. It utilizes the principles of managed grazing, and it is one of several distinct forms of agroforestry.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gopher tortoise</span> Species of reptile

The gopher tortoise is a species of tortoise in the family Testudinidae. The species is native to the southeastern United States. The gopher tortoise is seen as a keystone species because it digs burrows that provide shelter for at least 360 other animal species. G. polyphemus is threatened by predation and habitat destruction. Habitat degradation is the primary reason that the gopher tortoise is listed as vulnerable on the IUCN Red List, but they are considered threatened in some states while they are endangered in others.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pocosin</span> Kind of wetland of the Atlantic plain

Pocosin is a type of palustrine wetland with deep, acidic, sandy, peat soils. Groundwater saturates the soil except during brief seasonal dry spells and during prolonged droughts. Pocosin soils are nutrient-deficient (oligotrophic), especially in phosphorus.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Atlantic Plain</span> Physiographic division of the United States

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Croatan National Forest</span>

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Colt Creek State Park</span> State park in Florida, United States

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Louisiana pine snake</span> Species of snake

The Louisiana pine snake is a species of large, non-venomous, constrictor in the family Colubridae. This powerful snake is notable because of its large eggs and small clutch sizes. The Louisiana pine snake is indigenous to west-central Louisiana and East Texas, where it relies strongly on Baird's pocket gophers for its burrow system and as a food source. The Louisiana pine snake is rarely seen in the wild, and is considered to be one of the rarest snakes in North America. The demise of the species is due to its low fecundity coupled with the extensive loss of suitable habitat - the longleaf pine savannas in the Gulf coastal plain of the southeastern United States. Management activities are being conducted to promote the species' recovery.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Eastern woodlands of the United States</span>

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Alexander State Forest is located in Rapides Parish, Louisiana near the town of Woodworth. It was established in 1923 as a state demonstration forest. It contains the Indian Creek Recreation Area and the Alexander State Forest Headquarters Building, constructed in 1935, is on the National Register of Historic Places.

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<i>Lysimachia asperulifolia</i> Species of plant

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References

  1. ↑ "Habitats – The Longleaf Alliance" . Retrieved 2023-10-06.
  2. ↑ Young, Ramond A. (2003). Introduction to Forest Ecosystem Science and Management . Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. pp.  134–136. ISBN   978-0-471-33145-2.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Van Lear, D. H.; W.D. Carroll; P.R. Kapeluck; R. Johnson (6 June 2005). "History and restoration of the longleaf pine-grassland ecosystem: Implications for species at risk". Forest Ecology and Management. 211 (1–2): 150–165. doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2005.02.014.
  4. ↑ Pyne, Stephen J. (2010). America's Fires A Historical Context for Policy and Practice. Durham, NC: The Forest History Society. p. 1. ISBN   978-0-89030-073-2.
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 McGuire, John P. (2001). "Living on Longleaf: How Humans Shaped the Piney Woods Ecosystem". The Fire Forest Longleaf Pine - Wiregrass Ecosystem. 8 (2): 43–53.
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Croker Jr., Thomas C. (1987). Longleaf Pine: A History of Man and a Forest. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Forest Service. ASIN   B00071F5I4. OCLC   18499444. Unknown ID 120143709786.
  7. 1 2 3 Brockway, Dale G.; K. W. Outcalt (15 October 2000). "Restoring longleaf pine wiregrass ecosystems: Hexazinone application enhances effects of prescribed fire". Forest Ecology and Management. 137 (1–3): 121–138. doi:10.1016/s0378-1127(99)00321-7.
  8. 1 2 3 Frost, Cecil C. (1993). "Four Centuries of Changing Landscape Patterns in the Longleaf Pine Ecosystem". Proceedings 18th Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference. 18: 17–43.
  9. ↑ The Longleaf Alliance. "Lesson 25 Professional Land Managers Setting the Longleaf Pine Forest on Fire". The Longleaf A. Archived from the original on 2015-12-31. Retrieved 2013-02-22.
  10. 1 2 Pyne, Stephen J. (2010). America's fires : a historical context for policy and practice (Rev. ed.). Durham, N.C.: Forest History Society. pp. 3–5. ISBN   978-0-89030-073-2.
  11. ↑ "America's Forgotten Forest". National Wildlife Federation. Retrieved 2018-12-19.
  12. 1 2 3 4 Crofton, Elizabeth W. (2001). "Wildnotes: Flora and Fauna of the Longleaf Pine-Grassland Ecosystem". The Fire Forest Longleaf Pine-Wiregrass Ecosystem. 8 (2): 69–77.
  13. ↑ Simberloff, Daniel (1993). "Species - Area and Fragmentation Effects on Old-Growth Forest: Prospects for Longleaf Pine Communities". Proceedings 18th Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference. 18: 1–13.
  14. ↑ Engstrom, R. T. (1993). "Characteristic Mammals and Birds of Longleaf Pine Forests". Proceedings 18th Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference. 18: 127–137.
  15. ↑ White, James W. Hardin; Donald J. Leopold; Fred M. (2000). Harlow & Harrar's textbook of dendrology (9th ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill. pp.  142–146. ISBN   978-0-07-366171-1 – via Internet Archive.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  16. ↑ Peterson, Roger Tory (2010). Peterson field guide to birds of eastern and central North America. With contributions from Michael DiGiorgio, photographs by Jeffrey A. Gordon (6th ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. 214. ISBN   978-0-547-15246-2.
  17. 1 2 "Lesson 9: Pitcher Plant Bogs are Among the Most Unique Community of the Longleaf Pine Ecosystem". Andalusia, Alabama: The Longleaf Alliance. Archived from the original on 6 April 2016.
  18. ↑ Graham, Sean; Kline, Richard; Steen, David; Kelehear, Crystal (2018-12-05). "Description of an extant salamander from the Gulf Coastal Plain of North America: The Reticulated Siren, Siren reticulata". PLOS ONE. 13 (12): e0207460. Bibcode:2018PLoSO..1307460G. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0207460 . PMC   6281224 . PMID   30517124.
  19. 1 2 3 Lavoie, M.; L. Kobziar; A. Long; M. Hainds (July 2011). "Problems and Needs for Restorationists of Longleaf Pine Ecosystems: A Survey". Natural Areas Journal. 31 (3): 294–299. doi:10.3375/043.031.0312. S2CID   84598231.
  20. 1 2 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. "The Longleaf Pine/Wiregrass Ecosystem". U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Retrieved 2013-02-20.
  21. ↑ Holliday, Pamela P. (2001). "Going, Going... Saving the Longleaf Pine Ecosystem Before it's Gone". The Fire Forest Longleaf Pine - Wiregrass Ecosystem. 8 (2): 55–66.
  22. ↑ Croker Jr., Thomas C. (1987). Longleaf Pine: A History of Man and a Forest. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Forest Service. p. 12. ASIN   B00071F5I4. OCLC   18499444. Unknown ID 120143709786.
  23. ↑ "Fast Facts About U.S. Population Growth". Negative Population Growth. Archived from the original on 26 January 2013. Retrieved 16 February 2013.
  24. ↑ "Growing-season burns a natural ecological process in South Carolina". www.dnr.sc.gov. Retrieved 2020-10-25.
  25. ↑ Pyne, Stephen J. (2010). America's Fires A Historical Context for Policy and Practice. Durham, NC: The Forest History Society. pp. 77–79. ISBN   978-0-89030-073-2.
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