Data for the Lower Eastern region is an aggregate of individual county figures.
The Lower Eastern region of Kenya, commonly referred to by its indigenous name, Ukambani, is a geographic and cultural zone covering the counties of Machakos, Kitui County, and Makueni County. Lying to the east of the capital, Nairobi, south east of Mount Kenya region and stretching toward Tsavo, this region forms the southeastern part of Kenya's former Eastern Province. It is predominantly inhabited by the Kamba people, a Bantu ethnic group whose language (Kikamba) and traditions strongly define the area. As of 2023 it has a population of 3.76 Million people with Machakos Town being the largest urban center in the regions, other urban centers include Wote, Kitui, Mwingi and others.[4][5][6]
The landscape of Ukambani is largely rural, with the regional population spread across semi-arid plains, rolling hills (such as the Mbooni, Kilungu and Iuani ranges), and small urban centers. Machakos County is the most populous of the three (around 1.42 million people as of the 2019 census), followed by Kitui (about 1.14 million) and Makueni (nearly 1.0 million).[citation needed] The communities of Lower Eastern Kenya maintain a distinct identity based on Kamba culture, known for its rich traditions of wood carving, music, and farming, despite frequent drought.
The history of Lower Eastern Kenya is rooted in the movements and social organization of the Kamba people. Oral traditions and historical research suggest that the Kamba migrated into this region several centuries ago, gradually spreading from the Kilimanjaro area through the Taita Hills and onward into the plains and hills of eastern Kenya.[citation needed]
17th & 18th centuries
By the 17th and 18th centuries, Kamba communities were well established in what is now Machakos, Kitui and Makueni districts. In these pre-colonial times, the Kamba lived in clan-based communities governed by elders and chiefs. They practiced mixed farming and cattle herding, hunted wildlife, and produced distinctive crafts such as wood carvings and iron tools.
Crucially, the Akamba became noted as long-distance traders: caravans of Kamba porters and merchants traveled from the interior toward the Indian Ocean coast, exchanging ivory, beeswax, honey, and animal skins for cloth, beads, metal goods, and other imported items. Famous Kamba figures from this era include Chief Kivoi Mwendwa, an 18th-century trader from the Kitui area who guided European missionaries into the interior.
The region’s religion was traditionally centered on a single sky god (Mulungu) with ancestral spirits, and initiation ceremonies were important social rites. Kamba folklore also speaks of prophetesses (such as Syokimau of the Iveti Hills) and rituals like the Kilumi rain-dance performed to end droughts.[citation needed]
Colonial era
British colonial influence arrived in the late 19th century. In 1887–1888, the British East Africa Company established an outpost at Nzoi and soon moved its station to Machakos (named after Chief Masaku), making it the first inland administrative center of the protectorate. Machakos was even envisioned as a possible future capital until the Uganda Railway was routed through Nairobi instead. Under colonial rule, Ukambani was officially divided among Machakos and Kitui districts (with Makueni as part of Machakos district until it became a separate district in 1922).[citation needed]
Missionaries and traders arrived, and cash-crop farming (such as cotton and coffee on small scales) was encouraged, although the region’s poor soils and irregular rains made large-scale plantation agriculture difficult. Colonial authorities imposed taxes and occasional livestock control measures, leading to resistance.[citation needed]
Notably, in 1938, the Kamba people organized a major protest against a “destocking” campaign (a colonial policy aimed at reducing livestock deemed to be overgrazing), led by local leaders including Muindi Mbingu. This nonviolent resistance ultimately forced the colonial government to withdraw the policy. During the broader struggle for Kenyan independence, several Kamba leaders like Paul Ngei and Jackson Dalmaso “J.D.” Kali joined national movements (some were detained by the colonial government). After Kenya gained independence in 1963, politicians from Ukambani (such as Paul Ngei, who had been a Cabinet minister) continued to play roles in national affairs.
Post-independence era
In the post-independence era, the Lower Eastern region saw gradual growth and administrative change. Initially part of a larger Machakos District in the old Eastern Province, Makueni became its own district in 1992 and the three counties (Machakos, Kitui, Makueni) gained devolved governments under the 2010 constitution. Local development has since focused on improving infrastructure (roads, schools, water projects) to combat chronic challenges like drought and poverty. The counties have invested in climate-resilient agriculture, water-harvesting schemes and forest conservation in the higher hills, while also leveraging their proximity to Nairobi. Machakos Town, founded in colonial times, remains a regional hub, while new urbanizing areas such as Athi River (Mavoko) and Syokimau (along the Nairobi-Mombasa corridor) have grown with industry and commuter traffic.
Overall, the Lower Eastern region has transitioned from its colonial past to a modern Kenyan context, with continued emphasis on agriculture and cultural heritage.[citation needed]
Lower Eastern Kenya occupies a plateau region in the southeast of the country. Its three counties span roughly from about 1° S to 3° S latitude and 37° E to 38° E longitude. To the northwest, the region borders Kenya’s capital region (Nairobi and Kiambu County) and to the west it meets Embu County and Murang'a county. The southern boundary approaches the Tsavo Conservation Area and Taita–Taveta County, while the arid plains extend eastward toward Tana River County. The terrain is varied: much of Kitui and eastern Makueni are low-lying plains with elevations often below 1,000 meters, while western Machakos and northern Makueni include higher hills and ridges reaching 1,500–2,000 meters.[citation needed]
Notable upland features include the Kilungu Hills (north Machakos), Mbooni Hills and Nzaui Hills (in the western and southern parts of Makueni), and the Iuani Hills (south-central Makueni). To the southwest the region approaches the volcanic Chyulu Hills near the Kajiado border.
Climate
The climate of Ukambani is predominantly semi-arid. Rainfall is sparse and highly variable, averaging from about 400 to 800 millimeters per year, with a bimodal pattern (a “long rains” season around March–May and a “short rains” in October–December). Many areas experience frequent droughts, especially in the eastern lowlands. Temperature is generally warm year-round, though the higher hill areas can be noticeably cooler and wetter (up to 900 mm of rain annually) than the plains. Vegetation is mainly dry savanna and shrubland – dominated by acacia trees, baobabs, and low grasses – transitioning to thicket and forest in the wetter hill zones (some patches of indigenous forest survive on the Kilungu and Nzaui slopes, for example). The region’s soils are often shallow and red or sandy, which, combined with erratic rain, makes farming challenging without irrigation.
Water
Water resources in Ukambani are limited. Some permanent rivers such as the Athi (in southern Machakos) and seasonal tributaries of the Tana run through the area. Several rocky riverbeds only flow during rains, but dams and wells have been developed for local water supply (e.g. the Tiva Dam on the Athi River). Groundwater in parts of Machakos and Kitui is exploited via boreholes. Because of its marginal climate, water scarcity is a perennial issue for households and farming.
Despite these constraints, the region holds natural and economic assets. The eastern fringes of Kitui County border Tsavo East National Park, linking the landscape to Kenya’s wildlife conservation areas (elephants, lions and other wildlife can be found in Tsavo and nearby reserves like South Kitui Reserve). Geologically, parts of Kitui have deposits of coal (Mui Basin) and limestone (around Mutomo), though these are of limited commercial scale. Woodlands in hill areas are valued for fuelwood and medicinal plants. Overall, the geography of Lower Eastern Kenya creates a distinctive environment: semi-arid bush country with pockets of highland fertility, shaping the lifestyle and economy of its people.
The economy of the Lower Eastern region is largely based on agriculture and livestock, with secondary contributions from trade, industry and services. Most rural households practice subsistence or small-scale farming. Common crops include maize (corn), beans, millet, sorghum, cassava and green grams (mung beans), chosen for their tolerance of the dry climate. In the relatively wetter highland areas, horticultural crops such as mangoes, oranges and vegetables are also grown (Makueni in particular is known for its mango orchards). Many farmers keep livestock – especially goats, sheep and some cattle – which are well adapted to arid grazing lands. Dairy farming is limited, though small dairy cooperatives exist around market towns.
Agriculture
Agricultural productivity is often hampered by drought and poor soils. In response, county governments have promoted climate-smart farming: terracing, rainwater harvesting, and drought-resistant crop varieties. Irrigation schemes have been developed along perennial rivers or dams (for example, near Machakos and Kibwezi) to support vegetables and fruit exports. Despite these efforts, food insecurity can occur in prolonged dry spells.
Industry
Industrial activity in Lower Eastern is modest. There is one historic cotton ginnery in Kitui town (established in 1935) that processes cotton grown by farmers. Machakos County hosts Kenya Meat Commission’s Athi River abattoir and grinding plant, and the East African Portland Cement factory in Athi River (Mavoko) supplies cement nationally. Quarrying of stone, sand and clay for construction materials is common in Machakos and Kitui. In recent years, efforts to industrialize have focused on special economic zones: for example, the Konza Techno City project (partly in Machakos) aims to create a technology hub, although it is still developing. Small and medium enterprises – such as milling, carpentry, and retail – serve local needs in towns like Machakos, Kitui, Wote and Athi River.
Public services
The service sector is growing slowly. Towns along the Nairobi–Mombasa highway (such as Emali, Sultan Hamud, Kibwezi, and Athi River) benefit from transport trade and commuter traffic. Markets (often held weekly) are important economic events where rural producers sell produce and buy supplies. Education and health services have expanded under devolution: new schools, technical institutes and clinics provide jobs and public services. Remittances from Kamba people working in Nairobi, Mombasa or abroad also support many families back in the region.
Tourism
Tourism contributes a small share to the local economy, based on natural attractions. Visitors sometimes pass through Ukambani on the way to Tsavo National Park, and sites like Nzambani Rock (a large rock formation near Kitui) or scenic highland resorts (e.g. in Mbooni) draw local tourists. However, tourism is not as dominant as in some other Kenyan regions.
Challenges
Overall, the economic challenges are notable: the region has higher-than-average poverty rates, infrastructure gaps (especially in rural roads and water supply), and is highly vulnerable to climate variation. County authorities have prioritized agriculture modernization, water projects (dams, water pans, pipelines), and value-added industries to address these issues. For instance, Makueni County’s recent development plan emphasizes mango processing and renewable energy, while Machakos markets itself as an emerging gateway with proximity to Nairobi’s economy.
The population of the Lower Eastern region is predominantly composed of Kamba people, who are one of Kenya’s largest ethnic groups. The 2019 census counted roughly 3.56 million people in the three counties combined.[citation needed]Machakos County, Kitui, and Makueni County have relatively young populations, with a high rural residency (over 80% of residents live in rural areas, except Machakos County which is more urbanized due to its Nairobi-adjacent zones[citation needed]). Population density varies: Machakos is the most densely populated (around 240 people per square kilometer), reflecting its larger population and proximity to Nairobi, whereas Makueni (about 120/km²) and Kitui (around 100/km²) are more sparsely populated.[citation needed]
Families in Ukambani tend to be large; the average household consists of about 5–6 people.[citation needed] Traditional extended family structures (with grandparents or other relatives often living together) coexist alongside modern nuclear families, especially in towns. Urban migration is notable: many working-age Kamba, particularly men, move to Nairobi, Mombasa or Kisumu for employment and send money home. As a result, urban centers in the region are growing steadily – Athi River and Machakos Town have expanded into regional cities – while still retaining strong rural communities.
Languages
The Kamba (Akamba) language and culture are the unifying element. Kikamba is the mother tongue for the most residents, and it has several dialects within the region. Swahili is widely used as a lingua franca for commerce and inter-ethnic communication, while English is the language of education and official affairs. In Kitui County there are also small communities of Tharaka people (a subgroup of the Meru) mainly in the north, and in some towns one may encounter Kikuyu or Somali families who have settled as traders. Overall, however, over 95% of the rural population identifies ethnically as Kamba.[citation needed]
Religion
Religiously, the region is overwhelmingly Christian.[citation needed] Missionaries from various denominations (Catholic, Anglican, Presbyterian, African Independent Churches, Pentecostal and others) established churches throughout Ukambani during the 20th century. In Machakos County, for example, Roman Catholics and Protestants each account for roughly a third of the population, with other evangelicals and African Christian churches making up most of the rest. Kitui and Makueni show similar patterns: Christians of various churches form the majority, with only a very small minority adhering to Islam (usually along major towns) or traditional African beliefs. Church gatherings and Christian holidays are important social events in community life.[citation needed]
Literacy
Literacy and education levels have been improving. Machakos County in particular has relatively high school enrollment rates and adult literacy (Machakos’s literacy is on the order of 88%).[citation needed] Kitui and Makueni have seen gains in education, but still trail national averages due to geography and poverty. The region boasts many mission and public schools, and polytechnics and colleges have been built in major towns. Devolution has brought emphasis on vocational training to equip youth with skills in farming, technology and business.[citation needed]
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